TDM was introduced in Section 1.2.1.4, where it was said to only be a measure of congestion relief when alternatives are available. In many cities where bicycle-sharing became an option, TDM
Reward Convince Encourage Comfortable Attractive Coherent Safe Direct Reward Convince Encourage Comfortable Attractive Coherent Safe Direct Reward Convince Encourage Comfortable Attractive Coherent Safe Direct Make cycling possible,
safe and respectable. Get more people on a bicycle.
Keep people on their bicycles.
STARTER CLIMBER CHAMPION
Neighbourhood City-wide network
Promotion efforts Infrastructure efforts
Page | 59 strategies were employed to promote the scheme and attract users. TDM strategies are divided into two broad types – structural (comprising physical changes, financial-economic stimulation and legal regulations) and psychological (comprising provision of information and education). Structural activities aim at changing the context of decision-making; psychological strategies aim at providing and / or increasing the knowledge people have of transportation alternatives and also increasing the awareness about the impact of decisions that may affect perceptions, beliefs, attitudes and values (Adjei & Behrens, 2012). The psychological TDM strategies can be seen as a form of marketing. To compete with other modes of travel and attract new users, various types of marketing must be performed for the bicycle-sharing scheme, especially when it is first launched.
With an objective to change the travel behaviour of individuals (in this case a mode shift from the private motor vehicle to the bicycle), it is essential to understand what causes individuals to change and accept alternative patterns of behaviour, so that the most appropriate TDM strategies can be employed. In the subsequent subsections, travel behaviour change theories are introduced, after which the different marketing strategies are described, and finally marketing activities related to the promotion of bicycle-sharing as suggested by others are presented.
2.5.1 TRAVEL-BEHAVIOUR-CHANGE THEORIES
The behavioural theories that have been developed are an attempt at explaining what stimulates consumers to make choices, how they are made and when change occurs (see Table 2.11 to 2.14). These theories are not necessarily contradictory, and may not be mutually exclusive. The theories approach behaviour as a function of either internal factors (values, attitudes, personal norms, etc.) or external factors (incentives, societal norms, institutional constraints, etc.), or both. In terms of changes in travel behaviour, the theory of planned behaviour is dominant in explaining behaviour. (Adjei & Behrens, 2012)
Table 2.11: Theories explaining how behavioural changes are made. Adapted from Adjei and Behrens (2012).
HOW ARE BEHAVIOURAL CHOICES MADE? 1. Rational choice theory (RCT) / utility maximisation theory
Consumers aspire to maximise their personal advantage (utility) by evaluating the costs and benefits of the alternatives that are available.
2. Prospect theory (PT)
This theory criticises utility theories for being useless when making decisions for which the outcome is uncertain. The theory proposes that people attempt to sidestep outcomes that provide uncertainty during the decision process. They do this by weighting alternatives with greater certainty of outcome higher than others. 3. Habit formation theory
An individual engages in rational deliberation to find a preference among a set of alternatives when presented with a choice decision for the first time. If a positive outcome results from the enactment of the preference- based choice, this set of steps (i.e. from deliberation, to choice, to experience of the positive outcome) is remembered; the individual can retrieve the memory in the future when confronted with the same decision- situation. Under the same conditions, the same choice is therefore repeated, forming a habit. Strong habits cannot be easily altered by small changes in state of affairs; the provision of information about alternatives is not effective in this case.
Page | 60 Table 2.12: Theories explaining the factors that affect choice-making. Adapted from Adjei and Behrens (2012).
WHAT FACTORS AFFECT CHOICE-MAKING? 1. Theories of reasoned action (TRA) and planned behaviour (TPB)
The TRA was developed to explain and predict volitional behaviours by the strength of intention (intention is thus the immediate determinant of action), but this cannot be done, since not all factors on which behaviours depend are always under the control of the person (e.g. time, money, skills and cooperation of others). As an extension to this theory, the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) was introduced to predict non-volitional behaviour. It argues that intentions can only predict a person's attempt to perform behaviour and not necessarily the actual performance of the behaviour. Intentions are determined by attitudes towards behaviour (a function of behavioural beliefs) and subjective norms (a function of normative beliefs)0.
2. Theory of interpersonal behaviour
The theory proposes habit, intention and facilitation conditions as the three determinants of behaviour, in order of importance. The stronger the habit, the less the effect of intentions on behaviour, and vice versa. Intentions are determined by attitude, social norms (subjective norms in TRA and TPB) and perceived behavioural control (not considered in TRA and TPB). Attitude is preceded by belief and evaluation of outcome (denoting the deliberative nature of humans), while social factors are determined by norms, roles and self- concept denoting the extent to which respected individuals and society affect behaviour). Perceived behavioural control represents the extent to which a person believes it is easy or difficult to perform an act.
3. Norm activation theory
The theory was posited to explain altruistic behaviour, and proposes personal norms as the determinant for pro-social behaviour. Personal norms are formed through an adaptation of societal norms, and these personal norms are said to be activated only when the person acknowledges the consequences of his or her behaviours, and takes responsibility for them. Four stages were developed through which normative decisions are made: (i) attention - the need for awareness to act, which should be uniform with one's personal norms, (ii) motivation for behavioural change, (iii) evaluation of the costs and benefits of enacting the various alternatives, and (iv) denial when no clear decisions are made. The process is repeated until a choice is made.
Table 2.13: Theories explaining when behavioural changes occur. Adapted from Adjei and Behrens (2012).
WHEN DOES BEHAVIOURAL CHANGE OCCUR? 1. Cognitive dissonance theory
A person will try to attain consonance (avoid dissonance) between two cognitions (i.e. thoughts, attitudes, beliefs or states of awareness of behaviour) if they are inconsistent or in conflict with each other. In efforts to achieve consonance and harmony, one of the two cognitions would need to be changed or rejected.
2. Stages of change model
The theory postulates six stages through which behavioural changes occur: pre-contemplation, contemplation, preparation, action, maintenance and termination. At the pre-contemplation stage, decision-makers have no intention of changing behaviour, since they are not aware of the consequences associated with their behaviour, or are in denial about it. Through the provision of information and social pressures, decision-makers may become aware of these consequences. Decision-makers then start pondering behavioural changes by considering the costs and benefits of various alternatives. After the decision-makers become aware of these costs and benefits, they prepare for behavioural change by formulating action plans. At the preparation stage, some behavioural changes may already be made. The action plan for behavioural change is then carried out. The maintenance stage, which follows, may be considered very important in the design of behavioural interventions, especially when dealing with habitual behaviours. Here, the decision-maker tries to avoid relapse to behaviour of the past. Maintaining the context within which the behavioural change occurred is hence important for the new behaviour to form into a habit. This new behaviour then changes personal norms, and the temptation to relapse to past behaviour becomes minimal.
Page | 61 Table 2.14: Theories explaining how decision-makers respond to behaviour-change interventions.
Adapted from Adjei and Behrens (2012).
HOW DO DECISION-MAKERS RESPOND TO BEHAVIOUR CHANGE INTERVENTIONS? 1. Self-perception theory (SPT)
An individual discovers or alters his / her attitudes, emotions, and other internal states by observing his / her own behaviour and experience. In contrast to the CDT, and most other behavioural theories, this theory is nonsensical, since behaviour is presumed to precede attitude. An individual's attitude towards a particular behaviour may alter after performing the specific behaviour.
2. Goal setting theory (GST)
Human behaviour is motivated by conscious purpose, which is sequentially controlled by the decision-maker's goals. The theory focuses on the performance of behaviour - i.e. why some people perform better than others when given the same information and ability. The main explanation for this is that people have different goals. Two main factors in setting goals - content and intensity - are seen to determine the level of performance. Whilst content refers to how specific and difficult the set goal is, intensity determines the clarity and commitment of the person to attaining the goal. For better performance in behavioural change, the goal should be specific, challenging, achievable and appropriate.
2.5.2 MARKETING STRATEGIES
A marketing strategy coordinates several marketing activities into a plan that has a defined goal with regard to the provision of a service and the attraction of users. In his book Urban Transit – Operations,
Planning and Economics, Vuchic (2005) defines four marketing strategies, namely undifferentiated
marketing, differentiated marketing, concentrated marketing and individualised marketing. These are explained below. All could be applied to promote a specific bicycle-sharing scheme.
2.5.2.1 UNDIFFERENTIATED MARKETING
Undifferentiated marketing is a strategy in which a transportation mode or service (in this case bicycle-sharing) is provided and promoted in such a manner that it appeals to the public at large, i.e. the entire population of a defined service area with a single service / promotion package. Undifferentiated marketing is usually the simplest marketing strategy to implement, but is only effective when the individuals of the population have reasonably uniform characteristics.
2.5.2.2 DIFFERENTIATED MARKETING
In differentiated marketing, the population is divided into segments based on their varying needs, e.g. scholars, students and general commuters. The transportation mode or service (e.g. bicycle-sharing) is then uniquely promoted to each individual segment, so that in due course it appeals to everyone. Differentiated marketing is typically more costly than undifferentiated marketing, because it requires diversity and specialisation (Vuchic, 2005). The higher investment cost is, however, often compensated for by increased support on part of the users and hence higher revenues.
2.5.2.3 CONCENTRATED MARKETING
Concentrated marketing is a strategy that has its goal either the promotion of a single component of a transportation service or the attraction of selected segments of the population, e.g. only students.
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2.5.2.4 INDIVIDUALISED MARKETING
This strategy aims to permanently change travel habits and increase the regular usage of a specific transportation mode or service, e.g. bicycle sharing. Several groups of potential service users are selected and personally contacted, with the intention to make them think about, and possibly change, their current travel behaviour. The selected groups are thoroughly informed about the service, since it is recognised that many people do not use a service, because they are not familiar with it and / or have no experience in using it, or no motivation to do so. A free service pass, of, for example, a month, is given to these users, which generally increases the use of the service significantly. The experience gained from the first groups is used to apply the same concept of organising such an individual approach to inform and motivate potential users to use the service to many more individuals. The increased revenue attained from one round can be used to fund marketing for the next one. The individualised marketing strategy obviously involves initial effort and labour-intensive work with individuals, but it does ultimately result in permanent changes to travel behaviour for many of the individuals and greatly increases usage of the service.
2.5.3 MARKETING ACTIVITIES
In literature, various marketing programmes are described that were, and still are, used to promote specific bicycle-sharing schemes and bicycle-sharing in general; suggestions are also made. These programmes can be attributed to two marketing activities: information distribution and advertising. It is suggested that the launch of a bicycle-sharing scheme is accompanied by a professional media campaign (IEE 2011). This includes developing a unique and highly recognisable brand, as well as a social identity, for the bicycle sharing scheme (Transport Canada, 2009; Dhingra & Kodukula, 2010). The information campaigns on bicycle-sharing should attempt to improve the image of cycling, and communicate all the benefits the mode is able to afford to its users and society as a whole. Transport Canada (2009) adds to this that emphasis should be placed on the fact that bicycles DO belong on the roads. Dhingra and Kodukula (2010) say that a bicycle-sharing scheme should be promoted frequently and widely amongst different channels, with public officials and other celebrities partaking in this promotion. Certain population groups could be targeted individually, e.g. information on a town’s bicycle-sharing scheme could be distributed to students during orientation week (IEE, 2011). Büttner
et al (2011) furthermore identify that bicycle-sharing schemes are particularly suitable as part of
combined communication measures. A bicycle-sharing scheme could, for example, be advertised in combination with a car-free weekend project or a cycling safety awareness programme.
In addition to general marketing, Transport Canada (2009) and Dhingra and Kodukula (2012) suggest specific actions for driving membership sales. These include free or discounted trips in the first month/s, pre-sales of discounted long-term memberships before the launch of the scheme, and incentives for lifelong members, students, senior citizens, etc. similar to the Vitality rewards programme by Discovery (a South African medical aid). Dhingra and Kodukula (2012) suggest that employers, cinemas and chain stores provide incentives to people who commute by bicycle.
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3 RESEARCH DESIGN
3.1
INTRODUCTION
This chapter provides a framework of the overall approach that was taken to test the research statement of this research project: a bicycle-sharing scheme for school and university destined commuter traffic forms an integral part in achieving sustainable mobility in Stellenbosch, and is economically viable as a measure of congestion relief. The approach was a combination of common research designs that provided the necessary means to perform a CBA for a phased implementation. It comprised an extended literature review, survey-based research, evaluative research, a case study, and a simulation. The subsequent subsections discuss (in order) the application of these research designs in the research project, and how they came together to feed the CBA. The strengths and weaknesses of each design pertinent to this research project are also stated.
How the approach was ultimately implemented, and which tools and methodologies were applied to do so, is conversed step by step in Chapter 4.