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2.3.1

competence

2.3.1.1 Movement assessment battery for children (Movement-ABC -

Movement-ABC 2)

The Movement-ABC (Henderson et al., 1992) assesses the developmental status of FMS, with a focus on detection of delay, or deficiency in a child's movement skill development (Cools et al., 2009). The test is suitable for children between 4 and 12 years of age and consists of 32 items, subdivided into four age bands. Each age band includes eight individual test items measuring movement skills in three categories: manual dexterity skills, ball skills and balance skills. Each item is rated on a 6-point rating scale, where 5 equates to the weakest performance and 0 to the best performance. A total impairment score expresses the child's test performance. Profile scores provide more specific information on the child's movement skill performance within each individual category (Henderson et al., 1992). The test is used as a screening instrument for problems in the development of motor skills (Law et al., 2004; Van Waelvelde, De Weerdt, De Cock, & Smits-Engelsman, 2004; Van Waelvelde et al., 2007). According to these authors, the tool is especially useful in exploring issues in the functional integration of motor control or problems that often appear for the first time in late

preschool and early primary school years. Burton et al. (1998) consider the test suitable for the assessment of motor abilities, early milestones, FMS and specialised movement skills. As such, this assessment tool does, on face value and content, seem to cover all the aspects of movement skill competence which were highlighted in the new assessment of movement skills and movement abilities (Burton & Rogerson, 2001).

2.3.1.2 Körperkoordinationtest für kinder (KTK)

The KTK (Kiphard & Schilling, 1974, 2007) is appropriate for children with typical developmental trajectories, as well as for children with brain damage, behavioural problems or learning difficulties. The KTK-test is a product-oriented test that refers to a norm but has the advantage that test items are not learned quickly, so the test can be used for evaluating therapies and interventions. The test can best be described as a non- sport specific assessment of a child’s gross motor coordination, which requires the individual to modulate their behaviours to achieve consistent performance outcome goals in a dynamic environment. It does not measure movement skills, or movement skill sets, such as object control or locomotion. This assessment tool would seem to be a suitable measure of movement skill foundations and, due to the requirement of modulating the body to meet the demands of the environment, may also be an adequate measure of general movement coordination as defined by Burton and Rogerson (2001).

2.3.1.3 Test of Gross Motor Development, second edition (TGMD-2)

The TGMD-2 measures FMS performance based on qualitative aspects of movement skills. The test purports to identify children who are delayed in gross motor performance, so that practitioners are able to plan programmes to improve skills or for intervention. The age range (3 to 10 years) covers the period in which the most dramatic changes in a child's gross movement skill development occur (Ulrich, 2000). The test

includes locomotion and object control skills but not stability skills. The locomotor construct consists of six skills: run, gallop, hop, leap, horizontal jump, and slide. The object control construct also consists of six skills: two-hand strike, stationary dribble, catch, kick, overhand throw and underhand roll. A great advantage of the TGDM-2 is that each skill is broken up into separate components which are required for a masterful performance. This qualitative aspect of assessment allows the form of the movement rather than the outcome to be scored. As such the TGDM-2 is a process and product- oriented test that refers to a criterion and a norm. Burton and Miller (1998) concluded that the original TGMD assessment is suitable to assess movement skill sets and FMS. As the TGMD-2 is very similar to the original it is believed that this statement is still applicable.

Overall, all three test batteries have been shown to cover aspects of theory which underpin movement skill competence. The M-ABC has a wide variety of tests, and as such, it seems to be the most suitable to cover all aspects of Burton and Rogerson’s taxonomy. However, the M-ABC has a number of important limitations. The tests are different across the age bands which limits its use for intervention or longitudinal data collection. The biggest issue, however, is its suitability for use in a typically developing population. The M-ABC is designed to detect delay or deficiency in a child's movement skill development and as such may present a ceiling effect for typically developing children. The KTK and TGMD-2 are both suitable for PE and sports settings of typically developing children (Cools et al., 2009). The tests are the same for all children within the age range of the TGMD-2 (5-11) and the KTK (5-15). The KTK is non-sport specific and, as such, theoretically measures a child’s general movement coordination (Magill, 2011) or general movement ability (Burton & Rogerson, 2001); whilst the

TGMD-2 measures 12 FMS which are separated into two movement skill sets. To date, assessment tools have tended to either be, process measures similar to that of the TGMD-2 or, product oriented similar to the KTK.

The separation of product and process measurement of movement skill competence has been questioned (Stodden et al., 2008). The choice of a process or product test battery, in this respect, might be indicative of theoretical beliefs of how movement skill competence is formulated. For example, in general terms, an ecological dynamics theorist may favour a process-orientated approach, whereas a cognitive psychologist may adopt a product approach. The review of literature herein suggests that both assessment strategies provide a useful assessment of movement skill competence. By investigating the face and content validity of the three assessment tools, it can be considered whilst the M-ABC is deemed to cover all aspects of movement skill competence, the content may not be suitable for typically developing primary school children. On the other hand, whilst on the face of it the KTK and TGMD-2 separately do not cover all aspects of movement skill competence, their content is suitable for primary school children. By combining the two assessment measures this will, seemingly, cover all aspects of movement skill competence.