133 8. CRUCIFIXIÓN Y SEPULTURA DE JESÚS
PALABRA Y ACONTECIMIENTO EN EL RELATO DE LA PASIÓN
2. JESÚS EN LA CRUZ
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sECtIon 26
WholE lIFE Cost PRInCIPlEs anD PUMP DEsIgn
Whole life cost can be broken down into a number of key components:
• Initial Capital Cost
• Operating/Energy Costs
• Replacement/Wear Part Costs
• Maintenance & Repair Costs
• Disposal Costs.
Initial Capital Cost
Capital cost is the most visible cost and has historically been the primary selection criterion for most items of capital equipment. Pump users are now becoming increasingly aware of post installation costs and their impact on the total cost of ownership. Lowest capital cost purchases rarely prove economic in the longer term and given that the initial capital cost of a centrifugal pump, inclusive of installation, typically equates to between 5%-20% of whole life cost, placing more emphasis on post installation cost will clearly prove much more economic.
operating/Energy Costs
Energy costs can easily equate to as much as 90% of the whole life cost of a pumping installation, dependant on installed power and equipment utilisation.
Analysis of operating costs, in terms of energy consumption, is relatively straightforward, given that pump utilisation and demand profiles are understood and predictable. The wire to water efficiency of existing or proposed installations can be compared and the results projected over the estimated lifetime of the installation. This should be a fundamental component of any tender assessment process or existing asset review procedure.
Less visible however, is an installations’ capacity to operate at or near optimum efficiency throughout its operational life. A degree of degradation in hydraulic performance is inevitable with time. This degradation in performance is primarily a result of wear and erosion of internal clearances.
Wear rings limit fluid re-circulation between the high and low-pressure Contents
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areas within a centrifugal pump. A combination of erosion from high velocity fluid passing between the wear ring surfaces and mechanical wear, resultant from shaft deflection, widens the clearances allowing an increase in internal re-circulation. Significantly, highlighting the importance of optimum pump selection, this process will be accelerated if the pump operates at a duty point less than 70% or more than 115% of best efficiency flow. The resultant loss of performance usually leads to the pump running for longer periods to deliver a given quantity of fluid.
Erosion of hydraulic profiles and increases in the relative roughness of surfaces in contact with the pumped fluid, will also significantly impact on pump performance.
Replacement/Wear Part Costs
The replacement of major components within a pump, whether as a result of wear, erosion or following a component failure is often a very significant contributor to whole life costs. A replacement rotating assembly will typically equate to 70% of the costs of a replacement pump. It is not uncommon for all components forming the rotating assembly to require replacement within the lifetime of an installation. The selection of a conservatively engineered pump, manufactured from high-grade materials should negate this, substantially reducing maintenance costs and increasing the mean time between failure and major service outages. Parts supplied by the original pump manufacturers are likely to provide the highest levels of compatibility and will include any reliability modifications that have been developed since the original date of manufacture. SPP’s parts division provides a comprehensive section of spares for SPP and Crane pumps. We can also provide a wide range of re-engineered parts for other manufacturers’ pumps.
Maintenance & Repair Costs
The cost of regular monitoring and preventative maintenance is a necessary component of an installations’ whole life cost and historical evidence shows that regular maintenance is a lower cost option than unplanned emergency repairs. When calculating the cost of maintenance, installation downtime and resultant loss of productivity should be considered. Savings associated with increased mean time between failure and service outages will offset any higher initial capital costs incurred when installing a well-engineered pump, designed for ease of maintenance. SPP’s service division can provide a range
seCtiON 26WholE lIFE Costs
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of field and service centre based preventative maintenance programmes to support our customers’ production and shut-down schedules. These can vary between simple annual or biannual site based maintenance through to planned pump and valve swap-out programmes to support maximum plant uptime.
A well-engineered installation should be so designed as to offer good bearing and seal life and facilitate all but a major overhaul in-situ, without recourse to disturb either pipework or prime movers.
Disposal Costs
Disposal costs are relatively minor. Use of higher grade materials may enhance recycling value but this is minimal in the pumps whole life cost and is normally ignored.
FEatUREs oF a loW lIFE-CyClE Cost CEntRIFUgal PUMP The majority of pumps employed on utility type applications fall into one of the following categories: Horizontal Split Casing, Vertical Suspended Bowl or End Suction Pumps. Only the latter are regularly manufactured to recognised international standards e.g. ISO 5199. The requirement for low life-cycle cost pumps is generally applicable to pumps with branch sizes 150mm and above, where power requirements are higher, so it is not usually relevant to the majority of End Suction Pump applications.
The following key areas have been identified by pump end users and designers in relation to low life-cycle cost applications.
Mechanical Design
A significant change has taken place over the last decade in that the switch from soft packed glands to mechanical seals for shaft sealing on utility applications is near universal. The benefits of this change however have not been fully realised, as mechanical seal life is generally proportional to certain key aspects of pump performance, not least shaft deflection, vibration levels and seal chamber design. The vast majority of utility pumps available today have their design roots in the packed gland era. In many instances this is leading to premature bearing and seal failures, as many pump shafts are quite simply too flexible without the support of numerous packing rings and neck bushes.
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This is arguably the most significant factor, influencing the mean time between failures of utility pumps. Mechanical seals and bearings are intolerant of shaft deflection and residual unbalance. Therefore it is suggested that a pump designed for low life-cycle cost would have a shorter span between bearings and an increased shaft diameter when compared to a similar pump designed in the packed gland era. Specifically shafts should be so designed, as to limit shaft deflection at the limits of the operating range of say, 50% - 115% of best efficiency flow, to a maximum of 0.05mm at the seal faces. Bearings likewise should be designed to provide a minimum L10 life of 50,000 hours at these limits.
hydraulic Design
With the aid of 3-Dimensional Computational Fluid Dynamics, pump manufacturers are now able to produce hydraulic designs that achieve the theoretical maximum efficiency for a given specific speed or impeller geometry. The challenge is then to consistently replicate these designs in material form. High quality manufacturing techniques and procedures are therefore essential, particularly as pump casings and impellers (the most dimensionally critical components of any centrifugal pump) tend to be produced as castings. Only foundry techniques that ensure a high standard of dimensional accuracy and surface finish should be employed in low life-cycle cost pump production.
Efficiency Degradation
The maximum benefit of installing an energy efficient machine will only be realised if performance levels can be maintained for long periods of time between overhauls. Performance degradation is inevitable, however a combination of good hydraulic and mechanical design can have a positive impact in this area and prolong optimum efficiency for much longer periods of time.
Hydraulic design considerations are:
• Maintenance of optimum clearances between the impeller outside diameter and the volute cut-water, which will avoid vane pass cavitation.
• Optimisation of impeller geometry with satisfactory suction specific speed values, this will limit internal re-circulation and facilitate a wide band of operation (30%-115% of best efficiency flow).
seCtiON 26WholE lIFE Costs
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• Application of internal hydrophobic coating (low electronic affinity) in order to reduce the relative surface roughness value of the pump casing; thus maintaining the relative surface roughness values at a more constant level, unlike that of a bare metal casing, which will oxidise once put into service immediately impacting on hydraulic performance.
Mechanical design considerations
• Minimisation of shaft deflection will ensure no contact between impeller eye ring and sealing/wear rings surfaces, thus maintaining ‘as new’
clearances for longer periods.
• Often overlooked but highly important is wear ring design. A labyrinth profile will help to provide a staged pressure drop across the wear ring, rather than simply allowing high velocity fluid to flow across wear ring faces rapidly eroding internal clearances.
• High-grade materials of construction for the pump impeller with good erosion/corrosion properties will ensure that the relative roughness of hydraulic surfaces remain reasonably smooth throughout.
PaCKagIng thE PUMPsEt
When packaging a low life-cycle cost pump with a suitable prime mover, it is important to ensure that the same fundamental design principles be applied to the prime mover, baseplate/mounting assembly.
The benefits of a superior hydraulic design and first class component quality can easily be forfeited by coupling the highly efficient pump to a lower efficiency driver. Likewise bearing and seal design lives will not be realised if the pump and driver are connected via a flexible and inadequate baseplate or mounting frame.
The mounting arrangement as well as being rigid should facilitate a high degree of in-situ maintenance. Mechanical seals and bearings should be accessible without recourse to disturb either driver alignment of connecting pipework. This dictates the use of spacer type couplings, if drive end bearings and seals are to be maintainable in-situ.
Only through the application of all these design and packaging principles will the true benefits of Low Life-cycle Cost pumping be realised by the end user.
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EnERgy
EnERgy
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sECtIon 27
sPP EnERgy – EnERgy saVIng sERVICEs
Pumps are the single largest user of motive power in both industrial and commercial applications in the UK, accounting for over 30% of total power consumption within these sectors.
Pumps account for approximately 13% of the UK’s total annual electrical consumption (BPMA Data) and energy consumption during operation has been identified as the most significant impact of pumps on the environment.
In recent years, energy costs have become volatile with Oil, Gas and Coal prices at record levels. With this in mind, SPP has identified the need to operate pump systems more efficiently, and can realistically offer reductions in energy consumption and running costs by 30 to 50%.
saving Costs, saving Energy, saving the Environment
It is estimated that over 11 million motors with a total capacity of 90 GW are installed in UK industry – which represents about 40% of the UK’s total electricity consumption. With pumps contributing nearly a third of this consumption, there is considerable scope to reduce carbon emissions by improving pump system efficiency.
SPP Energy Division promotes the benefits of auditing complete pump systems and producing recommendations to minimise the energy consumption of pumps and their associated systems. SPP Energy Division can also if required supply many of the solutions capable of realising these savings coupled with ongoing monitoring to validate such savings and sustain them through the lifetime of the installation.
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savings through innovation
Through the use of proven systems and techniques, SPP Energy offers a complete energy saving solution for pumping systems that can be applied equally to new projects and existing installations.
It is clear that pump systems are heavy users of energy, especially large pumps that run continuously. Such pumps are generally oversized and operating far from their best efficiency points. They can suffer from poor pump intake conditions and inefficient running regimes - all wasting considerable amounts of energy. In order to save costs SPP Energy Division will undertake site audits focused on complete pump systems, ultimately producing a detailed report making recommendations for corrective action and clearly showing cost savings, kW/Hr savings, payback time and CO2 reduction.
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550
0
System Power - kW 2000
Annual C02 Savings Per 1% Efficiency Improvement
C02 Emissions Savings - kg
C02 emissions 8277.5 kg C02 Savings per year Energy Cost 0.43 kg C02/kWh Absorbed Power 220 kW Hours run per year 8750 hrs
20000 miles family car
Round the world flight
00
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550
Power absorbed - kW 3500
Annual Savings Per 1% Efficiency Improvement
Annual saving £
Energy Cost 7 p/kWh
Absorbed Power 220 kW Hours run per year 8750 hrs
Saving per year £1,347.50
seCtiON 27EnERgy
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services offered by sPP Energy include:
a. Site Survey/Audit (including equipment and operating regime) b. Analysis by accredited engineers with Report (which will include recomendations for efficiency improvements)
c. Solutions – eg:
• Upgrade/ refurbish/replace pumps
• Training
• Operational recommendations
• Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD)
• System Modelling
d. Sustained improvements through Lowest Life Cycle cost e. Monitoring and Review
• Intrusive measurement (Thermodynamic)
• Individual parameter measurement (Non intrusive - Ultrasonic)
• Permanent or temporary installations
• Pump and system performance log f. Pump Systems Management Contracts.
sPP Energy – accreditation
The SPP Energy Team is certified and accredited in the use of Pump System Analysis Testing (PSAT) and Competent Pump System Assessor (CPSA) – working to globally recognised standards set within the Europe and the US.
The team also operates within guidelines set by:
• Government Legislation
• BPMA
• Carbon Trust
• ISO BS EN etc
• Insurance assessors – such as Lloyds, Beauro Veritas, LPC, CEMARS, Achillies etc.
www.sppenergy.com
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EnERgy
ConVERsIon FaCtoRs
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Imperial to MetricMetric to Imperial Number ofNumber ofNumber of inchesx25.4=mmx0.03937=inches inchesx0.0254=mx39.37=inches feetx304.8=mmx0.00328=feet feetx0.3048=mx3.281=feet yardsx0.9144=mx1.0936=yards milesx1.609=kmx0.6214=miles in2x645.16=mm2x0.00155=in2 ft2x0.0929=m2x10.764=ft2 yds2x0.836=m2x1.196=yds2 acresx0.4047=hax2.471=acres miles2x2.59=km2x0.3861=miles2 in3x16387=mm3x0.000061=in3 ft3x28.32=litx0.0353=ft3 ft3x0.02832=m3x35.31=ft3 gals (Imp)x4.546=litx0.2200=gals (Imp) gals (Imp)x0.004546=m3x220=gals (Imp) gals (US)x3.785=litx0.2642=gals (US) gals (US)x0.003785=m3x264.2=gals (US) acre-inchesx1.028=ha-cmx0.973=acre-inches ha-cmx100=m3x0.01=ha-cm x 100000 = lit bbls (oil)x159=litx0.0063=bbls bbls (oil)x0.159=m3x6.297=bbls lbsx0.4536=kgx2.2046=lbs long tonne (Imp)x1016=kgx0.000984=tonne (metric) gal / minx0.2727=m3 / hx3.667=gal / min
sECtIon 28
ConVERsIon FaCtoRs
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97 1000 gals / hx1.263=l / sx0.792=1000 gals / h mgdx52.61=l / sx0.0190=mgd cusecsx28.32=l / sx0.0353=cusecs cuminsx0.472=l / sx2.119=cumins barrels / h (bph)x0.04416=l / sx22.65=bph 1000 bpdx1.04=l / sx0.5345=1000 bpd 1000 lb / hx0.12653 / s.g.=l / sx7.903 x s.g.=1000 lb / h tonnes / hx0.2834 / s.g.=l / sx3.528 x s.g.=tonnes / h tons / minx17.00 / s.g.=l / sx0.0588 x s.g.=tons / min m3 / hrx0.2778=l / sx3.6=m3 / hr p.s.i.x0.06895=barx14.504=p.s.i. p.s.i.x0.0703=kg / cm2x14.22=p.s.i. p.s.i.x0.703 / s.g.=m.liquidx1.422 x s.g.=p.s.i. ft liquid x0.02989 x s.g.=barx33.456 / s.g.=ft liquid ins Hgx0.34537 / s.g.=m.liquidx2.896 x s.g.=ins Hg ins Hgx0.03386=barx29.53=ins Hg torrs (mm Hg)x0.0136 / s.g.=m.liquidx73.56 x s.g.=torrs torrs (mm Hg)x0.001333=barx750=torrs kg / cm2x10 / s.g.=m.liquidx0.1x s.g.kg / cm2 kg / cm2x0.98065=barx1.197=kg / cm2 m liquidx0.098065 x s.g.=barx10.197 / s.g.=m liquid kPax0.10197 / s.g.=mx9.807 x s.g.=kPa Std atmx1.01325=barx0.9879=Std atm hpx0.7457=kWx1.341=hp metric hp (CV, PS, PK, CF)x0.7355=kWx1.3596=metric hp hpx0.9863=metric hp x1.0139=hp seCtiON 28ConVERsIon FaCtoRs
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sUPPlEMEntaRy Data anD ConVERsIon FaCtoRs
1 Imp gal = 10 lb cold fresh water = 1.2 US gal
Gallons per minute
(gpm) = gallons per hour / 60
= million gallons per day (mgd) / 694.4
Imperial gpm
= US gpm / 1.2
= cubic feet per second (cusecs) x 374
= cubic feet per minute (cumins) x 6.23
= lbs per hour / 600 / specific gravity
= tons per min x 224 / specific gravity
= tons per hour x 3.74 / specific gravity
= barrels (oil) per hour (bph) x 0.583
= 1000’s barrels per day (bpd) x 24.3 x10-6 1 atmosphere
(British) = 14.70 lbs / sq inch (psi) = 30 inches mercury (Hg) = 34 feet of water
Feet head
= psi x 2.31 / specific gravity
= ins Hg x 1.133 / specific gravity
= atmosphere (British) x 34 / specific gravity 1 Horsepower (hp) = 33000 ft lbs per minute = 550 ft lbs per second Flow velocity ‘v’ in
pipe v (ft / sec)
= 0.49 x gpm (Imp) d2
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v (m / s)
= 1273.2 x l / s d2
d = pipe actual bore in mm
‘Water’ horsepower (whp)
= Imp gpm x ft hd x s.g.
3300
= US gpm x ft hd x s.g.
3960
= lmp gpm x psi
1430
= Imp gal / hour x psi 85800 Mechanical hp = whp x 100
efficiency % fluid hp
= l / s x m x s.g. = l / s x kg / cm2 (metric) = l / s x m x s.g. = l / s x kg / cm2 (British)
75 7.5 76 7.6
fluid kW
= l / s x m x s.g. = l / s x kg / cm2 = l / s x bar
101.97 10.197 10
Driver output kW required
= fluid kW x 100 / E% (pump efficiency)
E (fraction) = fluid kW E% = fluid kW x 100 kW input to pump kW input to pump
seCtiON 28ConVERsIon FaCtoRs
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sECtIon 29
VaCUUM tEChnICal Data
Pressure and vacuum units conversions. Air and saturated water steam specific volumes. Water saturation temperature.
Absolute pressure Vacuum mbar Torr “Hg psia
30 14
Dry air volume of 1kg at 15˚C Saturated water steam volume of 1kg Water saturation temperature
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sECtIon 30
PRoDUCt / aPPlICatIon ChaRts
Pump type
sPP ModelDischarge and PerformanceConfigurations Horizontally Split
Hydrostream150 mm to 700 mm. Outputs to 2500 l/s. Heads up to 275m.Horizontal, Vertical Open Shaft, Vertical Direct Mounted Electric Motor or Horizontal Electric Motor or Engine Driven. Hi res, vDin etc. Thrustream200 mm to 1000 mm. Outputs up to 4500 l/s. Heads up to 275m.
Horizontal, Vertical Open Shaft, Vertical Direct Mounted Electric Motor or Horizontal Electric Motor or Engine Driven LLC150 to 700mm. Outputs to 2500l/s. Heads up to 275mHorizontal, Vertical Open Shaft, Vertical Direct Mounted Electric Motor or Horizontal Electric Motor or Engine Driven. Vertical Multi-Stage Suspended Bowl
Turbostream GH, GL, GR, GT
100 mm to 600 mm. Outputs up to 2500 l/s. Heads up to 300 m. Pumping from depths up to 100 m.Vertical Electric Motor or Engine Driven. Wet well or Dry well. LLC200 to 1000mm. Outputs to 4500l/s. Heads up to 160mVertical Electric Motor or Engine Driven. Wet well or Dry well. End Suction
Unistream32 mm to 150 mm. Outputs up to 140 l/s. Heads up to 105 m.Horizontal DIN 24255 Electric Motor or Engine Driven. Eurostream32 mm to 100 mm. Outputs up to 100 l/s. Heads up to 105 m.Horizontal Close Coupled Electric Motor Driven. Instream40 mm to 100 mm. Outputs up to 60 l/s. Heads up to 65m.Vertical Close Coupled Electric Motor Driven. seCtiON 29/30ConVERsIon FaCtoRs
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Pump typesPP ModelDischarge and PerformanceConfigurations Aquastream200 mm to 650 mm. Outputs up to 1800 l/s. Heads up to 28 m.Horizontal or Vertical Electric Motor or Engine Driven. Dry Well Solids Handling Freeway75 mm to 200 mm. Outputs to 100 l/s. Heads up to 60 m.Vertical Direct Mounted or Open Shaft Electric Motor Driven. Freeway LLC200 mm to 1100 mm. Outputs up to 4000 l/s. Heads up to 100m.
Vertical Direct Mounted or Vertical Open Shaft, Electric or Engine Driven. Transformer Oil Pumps50 mm to 250 mm. Outputs up to 220 l/s. Heads up to 30 m.
In-Line and Elbow Horizontal Integral Electric Motor Drive. (Custom designs available). Contractors PumpsAutoprime50 – 400mm. Outputs up to 700 l/s. Heads up to 160mAcoustic canopy on road tow or site trailer or skid type chassis Dry Well Solids Handling Packaged
Stereo / Disintegrator Solids Cutting EQ/EV Solids Diverter 75 mm to 250 mm. Outputs up to 250 l/s. Heads up to 48 m. Up to 100 mm. Outputs up to 20 l/s.
Horizontal and Vertical Open Shaft. Electric Motor Drive. Tank packages. Electric Motor Drive.
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103 sPP Pump type: Diverter• stereo Distintegrator• Freeway••••••• Eurostream•••••• Unistream••••• llC Vertical turbine•••••••••• thrustream•••••••• hydrostream••••••• llC split Case••••••••••
EnVIRonMEntal sERVICEs: Water supply Water treatment sewage treatment Drainage agriculture Forestry Contracting Unscreened sewage Raw sludge Digested sludge activated sludge screened sewage storm water Effluent service water Raw water lift ground water extraction Reservoir pumping town water supply boosting Water intake sump pumping Drainage Flood irrigation sprinkler irrigation swimming pools sand filter washing Fish farming Fountains aPPlICatIons
seCtiON 30ConVERsIon FaCtoRs
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sPP Pump type: llC split Case•••••••••••••••• hydrostream•••••••••••••••• thrustream•••••• llC Vertical turbine••••• Freeway••• Unistream•••••• Eurostream••••••••• aquastream••• transformer oil•• turbostream•••••••••
InDUstRIal sERVICEs: Power Food Paper sugar brweing Motor Process Chemical steel Platics onshore/offshore oild Industry sea water lift
Cooling water Drilling water Injection water booster Crude oil shipping Utility/service water Washdown ballast/deballast oil slops spray point tank farm/fuel transfer Pipeline boosting Cargo handling bottle washing transformer oil cooling thyristor cooling Fish farming Raw juices Paper stock Industrial stock Process waste Robot cooling bearing cooling Moulding machine cooling Process liquids aPPlICatIons
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105 FIRE anD MEChanICal sERVICEs offshore/onshore Fire protection hazard protection buliding services hospital services
sprinkler systems Foam pumping hydrant systems Fire monitor hose-reel systems Fire jockey Fire fighting stationary Fire fighting marine hot water circulation Condensate return boosted systems Cold water boosting Chilled water circulation Cooling tower circulation air washer circulation Water supply sump pumping aPPlICatIons
sPP Pump type: thustream•••••••••••• turbostream••••••••••••• Unistream•••••••• Eurostream••••••••••••• Instream•••••••••••••• overhead belt Drive• Multistream•••• seCtiON 30ConVERsIon FaCtoRs
sPP Pump type: llC split Case•••••••••••••••• hydrostream•••••••••••••••• thrustream•••••• llC Vertical turbine••••• Freeway••• Unistream•••••• Eurostream••••••••• aquastream••• transformer oil•• turbostream•••••••••
sPP Pump type: llC split Case•••••••••••••••• hydrostream•••••••••••••••• thrustream•••••• llC Vertical turbine••••• Freeway••• Unistream•••••• Eurostream••••••••• aquastream••• transformer oil•• turbostream•••••••••