Large(urban(parks(have(historically(been(planned(for(and(integrated(into(cities(in(recognition(of( the(physical(and(aesthetic(qualities(that(they(provide,(and(were(valued(as(important(assets(for( the( city( (Sherer,( 2006).( Many( parks( fell( into( disrepair,( and( in( some( countries( lost( relevance,( during( periods( of( war,( economic( hardship,( and( structural( change( as( people( moved( to( suburbs( where( they( could( have( backyards.( More( recently,( as( urban( populations( have( grown( and( cities( have( become( denser,( large( central( parks( have( taken( on( increasing( importance( to( provide( accessible( green( space( at( a( scale( that( can( provide( relief( to( urban( residents( from( the( built( environment((Sherer,(2006).((
Large(parks(often(include(a(range(of(vegetation(types(and(natural(spaces.(For(example,(Central( Park( in( New( York( City( includes( vast( areas( of( lawn( and( meadow,( lakes( and( streams,( woodland( and( forest,( flowering( gardens,( as( well( as( infrastructure( including( benches,( paths,( ballfields,( playgrounds,(sculptures,(monuments,(bridges(and(buildings((Central(Park(Conservancy,(2010).( Similarly,( Hyde( Park( in( London( covers( 350( acres,( with( landmark( monuments,( open( water,( facilities( for( cycling,( tennis( and( horse( riding,( over( 4000( trees,( a( meadow,( and( several( gardens( (The(Royal(Parks,(n.d.).(
There( are( limited( opportunities( within( established( cities( to( create( large( urban( parks( of( this( nature,( other( than( when( land( becomes( available( through( infrastructure( or( other( land( uses( becoming(obsolete.(Berlin’s(Tempelhof(Park(is(one(example(of(this,(where(a(large,(central(green( space( takes( advantage( of( the( now( obsolete( airport( (however( this( space( is( almost( exclusively(
grass)( (Berlin( Tourismus( &( Kongress( GmbH,( n.d.Eb);( as( is( the( NaturPark( Schöneberger( Südgelände( which( has( a( mix( of( vegetation( types( in( what( was( formerly( the( Tempelhof( railway( yard,(and(had(become(overgrown(with(spontaneous(vegetation(due(to(50(years(of(disuse((Berlin( Tourismus( &( Kongress( GmbH,( n.d.Ea).( Chicago’s( Millennium( Park( similarly( makes( use( of( a( disused(railyard(that(was(in(the(central(area(of(the(city,(and(adds(to(the(already(extensive(Grant( Park(alongside((City(Parks(Alliance,(n.d.).(
Urban( parks( are( taken( to( include( urban( forests,( large( green( wedges( and( nature( reserves,( and( other(such(largeEscale,(vegetated(areas(within(a(city.(
Potential)to)reduce)the)urban)heat)island)effect)
The( discussion( in( Section( 5.3.1( above( relating( to( impact( of( pocket( parks( on( the( UHI( effect( is( relevant(to(here.(The(literature(generally(does(not(distinguish(between(pocket(and(city(parks(as( such,( although( generally( finds( that( many( smaller( parks( distributed( throughout( the( urban( area( provide(greater(benefits(than(one,(large(park(area(as(the(cooling(benefit(of(the(park(decreases( with(distance(from(the(park.((
Wong( and( Yu( (2005)( explore( the( severity( of( the( UHI( effect( in( Singapore( by( measuring( the( temperature( difference( between( vegetated( space,( such( as( the( central,( green( forest( area( in( the( city,(and(other(built(up(sections(of(the(city.(They(observed(maximum(temperature(differences(of( just(over(4oC,(confirming(the(mitigation(potential(of(vegetation.(However,(as(Alexandri(and(Jones( (2008)(note,(urban(parks(are(effective(in(lowering(temperatures(within(the(vicinity(of(the(park,( they(generally(do(not(thermally(affect(the(concentrated(built(city(space.(Hence,(although(there(is( typically(significant(vegetation(within(cities,(the(concentration(of(this(into(parks(or(recreational( spaces(reduces(the(effectiveness(of(this(vegetation(to(mitigate(the(UHI(effect.( Potential)to)mitigate)climate)change) The(potential(of(large(urban(parks(to(mitigate(climate(change(is(considered(to(be(equivalent(to( pocket(parks,(on(a(per(area(basis.(See(Section5.3.1.( Potential)to)assist)in)water)cycle)management)
Large( urban( parks( are( likely( to( retain( the( site’s( natural( hydrology.( Depending( on( catchment( topography,(runoff(from(surrounding(urban(areas(may(flow(to(the(park,(allowing(this(to(also(be( infiltrated,(providing(the(water(cycle(benefits(discussed(for(other(biophilic(elements.(Research( has(not(been(found(that(specifically(discusses(the(impact(of(large(urban(parks(on(city(hydrology( and(water(cycle(management.(
Potential)to)improve)air)quality)
The( degree( to( which( parks( improve( urban( air( quality( is( largely( dependent( on( the( vegetation( within( the( park,( through( mechanisms( discussed( in( Section( 5.3.1.( Parks( tend( to( have( a( higher( density(of(trees(than(all(other(land(uses(within(a(city,(thus(providing(potential(for(relatively(large( benefits.(The(benefits,(however,(may(be(contained(to(the(park(itself,(and(areas(nearby((Nowak(&( Heisler,(2010).( Potential)to)increase)biodiversity) As(discussed(in(Section(5.3.1(on(pocket(parks,(parks(provide(biodiversity(refuges(vital(within(an( urban(landscape.(Scale(is(an(important(determinant(of(biodiversity,(as(is(habitat(diversity,(and( city(parks(provide(the(opportunity(to(enhance(both(of(these(factors.(( Potential)to)catalyse)economic)development)
Large( city( parks( can( be( an( economic( asset( in( cities.( Parks( can( catalyse( urban( development;( establish( a( framework( for( such( development;( increase( the( value( of( nearby( properties( and( investments;( encourage( active( transport;( and( provide( ecosystem( services( (Carlson,( 2007).( Chiesura( (2004)( suggests( parks( are( also( often( significant( tourist( attractions.( The( increased( revenue( and( employment( from( tourists( stimulates( local( economies,( while( increased( property( prices( of( properties( overlooking( such( parks( increase( city( tax( revenue( (Chiesura,( 2004).( The( increase(in(tax(revenue(can(be(sufficient(to(fund(the(development(of(the(park.(For(instance,(the( Minneapolis(park(system(was(proposed(in(1883(based(on(the(economic(success(of(Central(Park( in( New( York,( which( increased( the( value( of( taxable( properties( in( the( wards( immediately( surrounding( the( park( by( US$54( million( within( 10( years,( far( exceeding( the( total( costs( of( US$3( million((Carlson,(2007).(
The(conversion(of(a(disused(rail(yard(in(Chicago(into(the(Millennium(Park(in(conjunction(with( rezoning(of(the(area(led(to(a(significant(increase(in(tourist(numbers,(property(tax(revenue,(sales( tax( revenue,( property( development,( and( general( business( in( the( surrounding( area( (Bruner( Foundation,(2009;(Chicago(Loop(Alliance,(2011;(Goodman(Williams(Group(&(URS(Corporation,( 2005).( The( Park( is( a( key( tourist( destination,( attracting( around( 19( million( people( since( its( opening( in( June( 2004( (Chicago( Loop( Alliance,( 2011),( making( Chicago( America’s( most( popular( tourist(destination(in(2006((City(Parks(Alliance,(n.d.).(The(predicted,(10Eyear(impact(of(the(Park( on( adjacent( real( estate( that( is( directly( attributable( to( Millennium( Park( was( estimated( to( be( US$1.4(billion(in(2005((Goodman(Williams(Group(&(URS(Corporation,(2005).(
Potential)to)encourage)physical)activity)
Parks( provide( space( for( people( to( undertake( formal( and( informal( physical( activity( (BedimoE Rung,(Mowen,(&(Cohen,(2005),(contributing(to(the(overall(health(of(residents.(BedimoERung,(et( al.( (2005)( note,( however,( that( the( degree( to( which( a( park( will( encourage( physical( activity( depends(on(a(range(of(factors,(including(the(features(within(the(park((i.e.(sporting(fields,(areas( suitable(for(running(or(other(physical(activities),(condition((whether(the(park(is(well(maintained( or(not),(accessibility((including(both(getting(to(the(park,(and(ease(of(moving(around(the(park),( aesthetics,( and( safety.( Cohen( et( al.( (2007)( similarly( found( that( parks( were( the( most( common( place( where( park( visitors( exercised,( and( that( both( park( use( and( exercise( levels( of( individuals( surveyed(were(predicted(by(how(close(to(the(park(they(lived.(They(also(found,(however,(that(the( majority(of(park(users(were(sedentary(when(observed(there.(
Thompson( Coon( et( al.( (2011)( reviewed( research( and( literature( on( physical( activity( in( natural( environments(and(physical(activity(indoors,(finding(that(exercising(in(natural(environments(was( associated(with(greater(feelings(of(revitalisation(and(positive(engagement,(decreases(in(tension,( confusion,( anger,( and( depression,( and( increased( energy.( They( also( found( that( participants( in( reviewed( studies( reported( greater( enjoyment( and( satisfaction( with( outdoor( activity( and( indicated(a(greater(intent(to(repeat(the(physical(activity.(The(studies(indicated(that(the(feelings( of(calmness(gained(from(outdoor(activity(declined(once(the(activity(had(ended,(and(studies(did( not(consider(whether(the(physical(activity(actual(improved(physical(health.(
Consideration)for)use)
E Land! cost! and! availability:( The( creation( of( additional( city( parks( is( difficult( within( already( established(urban(areas,(as(land(is(generally(already(developed(for(other(purposes,(and(the( cost( of( land( is( high( (Hedgecock,( 2012).( Opportunities( may,( however,( emerge( as( transport,( manufacturing( and( industrial( infrastructure( becomes( obsolete,( such( as( the( Tempelhof( airport(in(Berlin,(and(rail(yards(in(Berlin(and(Chicago.(
E Competing!park!uses:(Parks(provide(for(a(range(of(uses(and(priorities,(such(as(biodiversity,( physical( activity,( socialising( and( relaxation,( stormwater( management,( dog( walking( and( children’s( playgrounds.( These( have( implications( for( park( design( and( maintenance,( and( at( times(these(uses(can(impact(on(other(park(activities((Hedgecock,(2012).((
E Greater!tree!coverage:(Increased(awareness(about(skin(cancer(has(led(to(demand(for(more( shade(in(parks.(Greater(tree(coverage(can(ben(required(as(a(result((Hedgecock,(2012).(This( has(the(potential(to(enhance(many(of(the(benefits(discussed(above,(many(of(which(are(largely( dependent(on(the(presence(of(trees.(
E Maintenance! and! management! requirements:( Park( use( can( result( in( degradation( of( these( environments,(such(as(through(erosion,(littering,(soil(compaction,(destruction(of(vegetation( and( weed( infestation.( Park( design,( and( the( availability( of( facilities( such( as( rubbish( bins,( walking(tracks,(erosion(prevention(devices(and(education(may(mitigate(this.(Parks(require( ongoing( maintenance( for( mowing,( plant( care,( irrigation,( maintenance( of( facilities,( which( requires(municipal(resources((Hedgecock,(2012).(
E Water!requirements:( City( parks( often( require( irrigation.( Periodic( low( rainfall( conditions( in( Australia( can( compromise( the( ability( of( municipalities( to( maintain( watering( regimes( (Hedgecock,(2012).(
E Perception!of!safety!risks:( Safety( concerns( in( public( parks( can( cause( people( to( avoid( these( spaces.(Park(design(can(reduce(this(perception,(with(features(such(as(lighting,(keeping(parks( well(maintained,(and(ensuring(good(visual(access((Hedgecock,(2012).(