Government, corporate and philanthropic funding for film production,
distribution and exhibition in countries such as the Great Britain and the U.S. marked the historical development of experimental and independent cinema during the 1930s.
Given the economic, political and social tension rising in Europe and the U.S. after the 1929 economic crash, filmmakers involved in avant-garde groups adopted more politicised positions in the 1930s. These years saw the rise of popular front politics in countries such as Spain and France, which joined centre to left-wing ideologies. These groups predominantly endorsed socially progressive values, with varying views on economic and political organisation. Simultaneously, right-wing governments strengthened in Italy and Germany, and there were growing suspicions about the methods and ends of Stalin’s regime in Russia.
During that time Soviet constructivism fell out of grace. The shift in Soviet policy coincided with the birth of abstract expressionist painting in the U.S. In the 1940s, reenberg used a formalist argument to appraise abstract expressionism’s historical continuity with the avant-gardes of the earlier decades. Yet he did not gauge those artists’ relation with the previous generation of merican artists known as Regionalists and American Scene painters.20 The latter artists painted landscapes, portraits and everyday scenes that linked American identity to nature and folklore.21 These were the aesthetics endorsed by Franklin D. Roosevelt’s New Deal, the federal programme designed to tackle the Great Depression. The “Works Progress
dministration” (WP ) started in 1935 to provide employment to artists and reinvigorate the nation’s morale through images that extolled resilience during hard times.22 Jonathan Harris argues that the Regionalist style fit well within the New Deal’s propagandistic aims. 23 The style stressed the notion of inclusive citizenship and appeased the racial and class conflicts stirred by the plight of Depression-era America.
The later rise of abstract expressionism and its recognition as merica’s modern art
20 Erika L. Doss, Benton, Pollock and the Politics of Modernism: From Regionalism to Abstract Expressionism (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991).
21 “Art: U.S. Scene,” Time, December 24, 1934. Painters such as Grant Wood, Thomas Hart Benton and Charles Burchfield are identified with these aesthetics.
http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,711633,00.html accessed 12/05/2008.
22 The WPA included several arts programme, amongst them, the Federal Art Project, the Federal Theatre Project, the Federal Music Project, Federal Writers Project and the Historical Records Survey.
23 Jonathan Harris, Federal Art and National Culture: The Politics of Identity in New Deal America. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995).
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suggests that the U.S. federal government’s image expanded its focus beyond localism as the country engaged more actively in international politics.
Other New Deal programmes such as the Resettlement Administration
sponsored photography and documentary filmmaking during the 1930s.24 In particular, the appearance of government sponsorship, as well as private philanthropies and corporate funding for film at this point, contributed to the professionalisation of documentary filmmaking. This delineation, as Bill Nichols argues, put this form of filmmaking “to serve the political and ideological agenda of the existing nation-state.”25 Next I explain the case of the U.S., where these forms of sponsorship marked the direction of film practices where experimental aesthetics and independent modes of production, film propaganda and film education aims, often intersected.
1.3.1 U.S. Documentary Film in the 1930s
During the 1930s in the U.S., left-wing groups used filmmaking to raise awareness of social justice and working-class issues.26 The New York Workers’ Film and Photo League was set up in 1930 by critics, writers, photographers and filmmakers including Lewis Jacobs, Ralph Steiner, Leo Hurtwitz and Elia Kazan. They produced and exhibited leftist newsreels on workers’ strikes, demonstrations, life in impoverished communities and images from the Spanish Civil War. They programmed these along with Soviet films, experimental animation and burlesque films. They kept in contact with other national and international Workers’ Leagues, and wrote in specialised magazines such as Hound and Horn and Experimental Cinema.27 Within this vibrant film culture, the Film and Photo League member and film critic Harry Alan Potamkin elaborated a comprehensive film education project independent from the film industry
24 The Resettlement Administration’s photographic division commissioned work from Walker Evans and Dorothea Lange, whose photographs of Oklahoma migrants in California toured around the country. These images, now iconic representations of the Depression years, fitted within the New Deal’s praise of endurance by emphasising everyday drama and human dignity in the gestures of their
protagonists. William Stott, Documentary Expression and the Thirties America (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1986). The Resettlement Administration’s photographic division commissioned work from Walker Evans and Dorothea Lange, whose photographs of Oklahoma migrants in California toured around the country. These images, now iconic representations of the Depression years, fitted within the New Deal’s praise of endurance by emphasising everyday drama and human dignity in the gestures of their protagonists.
25 Bill Nichols, “Documentary Film and the odernist vant- arde,” Critical Enquiry 27, no.4 (June 2001): 580-610.
26 William Alexander, Films on the Left: American Documentary Film from 1931 to 1942 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1981).
27 Thomas Brandon, “The dvance-Guard of a New Motion Picture Art: Experimental Cinema 1930-1933,” Journal of University Film Association 30, no. 1(Winter 1978): 27-35.
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in the winter of 1932-3.28 Dana Polan argues that Potamkin’s attempt to join film education and preservation entailed a philosophy of national creativity which can be considered the earliest public proposal for an American film institute.29 Potamkin conceived a progressive higher education college whose curriculum integrated the teaching of critical and technical aspects of cinema. As I show through this dissertation, the American Film Institute (AFI) as an educational project grew from this and other early proposals but its shape was marked by the presence of main film industry association.
1.3.2 Independent Documentary Filmmaking
Political and social events in the 1930s affected the internal dynamics of the Film and Photo League, which courted a dispute by accepting a project for a New Deal propaganda film. This was Hands (1934), a short film introducing a series of idle hands becoming active after the exchange of a government treasury check. The film engaged with avant-garde aesthetics by emphasising abstract geometric forms through framing and contrast, and dynamism through editing. Scott MacDonald explains Hands’ propaganda success in presenting the government as “imaginative and
inventive, open to new possibilities, supportive of forms of free expression that respect both the laboring person’s efforts and the artist’s imagination.”30 Hands thus skilfully combined the avant-garde focus on form and the New Deal’s message of economic relief. The film was made collaboratively by Paul Steiner and photographer Willard Van Dyke, the latter a crucial agent in the history of the institutionalisation of
independent and experimental filmmaking in the U.S.31 After the dispute for accepting the film, Steiner and Hurtwitz left the Film and Photo League to form the independent production company Nykino in 1935, but accepted external commissions such as the New Deal film.
28 The article “ Proposal for a School of the otion Picture” was published posthumously in the arts journal Hound and Horn in October 1933. It can be found in Potamkin’s The Compound Cinema, ed. Lewis Jacobs (New York: Teachers College Press, 1977), 587-592. He also suggested creating “ Library of the otion Picture” which would include foreign and domestic films of different categories, film stills, scenarios and books. Potamkin included Iris Barry, the London Film Society member and then resident in the U.S., amongst the possible faculty staff.
29 Dana Polan, Scenes of Instruction: The Beginnings of U.S. Study of Film (Los Angeles:
California University Press, 2007).
30 Scott MacDonald, “Ralph Steiner,” in Lovers of Cinema: The First American Film Avant-Garde. 1919-1945, ed. Jan-Christopher Horak (Madison: Wisconsin University Press, 1991), 223.
31 Willard Van Dyke had been part of the California group f/64, where photographers like Edward Weston, Ansel Adams and Imogen Cunningham claimed photography’s art status by pursuing medium-specific aesthetics. Motivated to pursue a career in social documentary, he moved to New York, where he met Ralph Steiner and Iris Barry.
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Nykino’s sponsored documentary filmmaking followed the practice instituted by the British John Grierson. Grierson studied philosophy and communication, and was a member of the London Film Society. He was inspired by the Soviets’
intellectual approach to montage and Robert Flaherty’s poetic style of representing the relationship between man and nature. Grierson gained prominence producing films and as film officer for various public and private British institutions.32 His approach to sponsored film production centred on two points. The first was to encourage corporate and state funding in order not to depend on box-office revenue. The second was to reach out to non-theatrical audiences by organising16mm projections at civic clubs, film societies and schools.33 Grierson’s writings on documentary film influenced much of the rhetoric on creativity and objectivity later accompanying sponsored
documentary films. rierson stated that “you photograph the natural life, but you also, by your juxtaposition of detail, create an interpretation of it.”34 Grierson’s theoretical view that film captures reality, and through their selection of events and details, filmmakers apply their creativity echoes Delluc’s statements and influenced film theoreticians such as Andre Bazin after WWII. Significantly, rierson’s approach to professional non-theatrical filmmaking through government and corporate backing was followed by Steiner and Hurtwitz in Nykino, and later expanded by the RF’s film policies.35
The New Deal’s Resettlement dministration backed a film project on soil conservation by independent journalist Pare Lorentz. In need of a film crew, Lorentz contacted Nykino to make The Plow that Broke the Plains (1935). But the government connection caused internal division at Nykino and some of its members like Ivens left in order to stay independent.36 Lorent ’s next film for the Resettlement Administration was The River (1937), about the need for dam construction in the Mississippi region.
32 Grierson became first film officer for the Empire Marketing Board. The Board was a government public relations agency devoted to strengthen Britain’s international trade relations in place of previous military and political ties. It produced films like rierson’s own Drifters (1929), on herring fishing, and Robert Flaherty’s Industrial Britain (1931) on craftsmanship and modernisation. Grierson attracted various individuals to his working ethos like Basil Wright and Paul Rotha. In 1933, Grierson moved to the General Post Office film unit, where experimental animators such as Len Lye and Malcolm McLaren produced influential films. In 1937 Grierson set up the London Film Centre, joining filmmakers with government and corporate sponsors.
33 Jack C. Ellis and Betsy A. McLane, A New History of Documentary Film (New York:
Continuum, 2008).
34 John Grierson, “First Principles of Documentary,” in Grierson on Documentary, ed. Forsyth Hardy (London: Faber, 1979), 38.
35 Nykino’s initial formation attracted avant-garde photographers and filmmakers such as Van Dyke, Joris Ivens, Henwar Rodakiewicz and Paul Strand.
36 Richard Meram Barsam, Non-Fiction Film: A Critical History, rev. ed (Bloomington:
Indiana University Press, 1992).
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Lorentz hired Van Dyke for the camera work. The River was a critical and commercial success. Inspired by the success of Grierson in making government and corporate films, Roosevelt supported Lorent ’s idea of establishing the United States Film Service in 1938. The United States Film Service was to provide a central distribution service for government films but lacked solid distribution resources and did not fulfil its mission.37 Like other New Deal projects, the films Lorentz produced for the United States Film Service were viewed with suspicion by Republicans in Congress.38 As MacCann observes, the success of films like The Plow and The River relied on the popularity of New Deal ideology in the mid-1930s.39 By the end of the decade the U.S. shifted its attention to foreign affairs.
The New Deal and United States Film Service films broadened the conventions of government propaganda by introducing artistic standards. Hiring filmmakers for commissions preserved an aura of independence focused on the creativity and personal vision of the filmmakers during production. This approach continued with the expansion of sponsored film production, which furthered the use of film for education and
propaganda in the following years.