Mentoring is a complex phenomenon, and the subsequent training of those who serve as mentors follows in this complexity. Quality training experiences can have an inherent value in producing a solid foundation for meaningful mentoring relationships. Mentoring has been recognized as an innate talent for many (Daresh, 2001), but some individuals might be able to acquire many of the skills associated with effective mentoring through an effective training regimen. Daresh (2001)
had proposed a five-domain training model along with suggested learning and training content that can assist professionals with becoming more effective mentors to their protégés. The five- domain training regimen includes an orientation to mentoring, training on instructional leadership, human relations skills, mentor process skills, and local implementation issues. Table 3.1 summarizes the specific domains of the Daresh model along with subsequent learning and training content, and each of the domains is discussed in greater detail within the following sections.
The first domain, Orientation to Mentoring, is based on the principle that prospective mentors should be exposed to training that develops a consensus definition of what mentoring is in the context of educational administration, what some of the benefits of mentoring are, and what some of the potential problem areas in mentoring relationships can be. According to Daresh (2001), devoting time to these areas is worthwhile due to the fact that word “mentoring has been so widely used to denote such a wide array of relationships that it has started to lose much of its real value” (pp. 43-44). Furthermore as principals, citing and discussing authentic examples of appropriate mentoring relationships can be helpful in clarifying certain influential relationships that develop over the career span.
In Domain 2, Instructional Leadership, mentors are exposed to and involved in a consideration of the question, “Mentoring for what?” (Daresh, 2001, p. 45). In order to address this question, training on the concepts of vision, management styles, and instructional leadership are shared in concert with a mentor’s personal philosophies and values. This domain focuses the training on three key areas that Daresh (2001) had identified as prominent. The first area addressed the idea that instructional leaders have a vision that is developed from their ongoing dialogue with the staff and community stakeholders. Leaders need to articulate this vision
Table 3.1
The Five Domains of Daresh’s Mentor Training Model as Aligned with Learning and Training Content
Domain Defining Mentoing in the Context of Educational Administration Benefits of Mentoring Potential Problems in Mentoring Relationships Vision, Management Styles, and Instruction Adult Learning Theories and Styles Problem Solving, Listening, and Observation Skills Needs, Goals, and Objectives Domain 1: Orientation to Mentoring
X
X
X
Domain 2: Instructional LeadershipX
Domain 3: Human Relations SkillsX
Domain 4: Mentor Process SkillsX
Domain 5: Local Implementation IssuesX
Note. Daresh’s (2001) domains are detailed in the left column of the table with the learning and training content being displayed
horizontally across the top of the table. The “X” designation indicates specific learning and training content are addressed in each subsequent domain.
succinctly in terms of what the school is driven to do and how it will benefit student achievement. Secondly, individual or shared decision-making is actively practiced in a meaningful way so as to involve the staff and stakeholders in the decision making process. Finally, instruction is primary, and as such, it is given priority in regards to the resources provided. Each of these three areas is important, and the effective mentor works diligently to initiate conversations with the respective protégés on their personal philosophies in relation to these high priority goals.
In Domain 3, Human Relations Skills, Daresh (2001) suggested that mentors are trained in the expectations that “mentoring requires considerable skill in the area of effective human relations” (p. 47). Training focal points are centered on adult learning theories and styles with the specific appreciation of alternative behavioral styles possessed by adults in learning activities. By and large, mentors are considerably skilled at working with children as learners, but they lack an appreciation for and understanding of learning in adults. In order to capture this appreciation, the training needs to address where and how adults learn best. Daresh (2001) identified several characteristics of effective adult learning, including:
• the learning activities are realistic and have a personal importance to the learner; • learning is related to personal and professional goals;
• the learner receives feedback, progress and experiences success; and • the motivation to learn is truly intrinsic.
Additionally, in this domain extensive training needs to be incorporated on behavioral patterns and the recognition that people behave differently. Recognizing that there is no “right” way to behave, effective organizations capitalize on the individual strengths of its members while encouraging the celebration of differences.
Mentors are trained on the major skills of problem-solving, listening, and observation in Domain 4, Mentor Process Skills. Specifically, Daresh (2001) highlighted a seven-step suggested process for problem solving: (1) seek information about the problem in questions; (2) define the problem; (3) propose alternative strategies; (4) select strategies that will actually be implemented; (5) design an implementation/action plan; (6) implement plan; and (7) assess the implementation/action plan. In order to practice this linear problem-solving method, scenarios can be called upon by mentors to utilize this process.
Much of the interactions between mentors and their protégés occur in conference-like settings where problems are shared, alternative solutions are generated, and appropriate measures are selecting (Daresh, 2001). This part of the training addresses the conferencing skills of the mentor based on periodic on-site visitations along with synchronous and asynchronous communication between both parties. The purpose of conferencing between practicing administrators may be to address the following objectives: (a) promoting the sharing of experiences; (b) promoting open communication; (c) sharing problems and generating solutions; (d) providing assistance and encouragement; and (e) providing a supportive work environment so mentors and protégés are achieving growth and development.
With regard to the process of identifying observation skills that are needed by mentors, the context is very different from the supervision of teachers. Job-shadowing is a recommended practice that should be followed by an open, reflective conference that is led by the protégé (Daresh, 2001). Subsequently, professional growth is managed by both parties in these instances through the reciprocal dialogue.
Lastly, in Domain 5, Local Implementation Issues, mentors work collaboratively with protégés on identifying the needs, goals, and objectives of their particular school or district.
Integrating the mentoring experiences into an existing culture is pivotal so the experience is not perceived as an add-on to an already overwhelming schedule.
The National Association of Elementary School Principals (NAESP) recognizes that the recruitment and retention of quality and experienced principals is a very difficult task (NAESP, n.d.). As the demands on building principals continue to increase, principal mentors provide a network of advice and counsel to novice and even experienced principals. The NAESP National Mentor program is designed to engage retired and experienced principals to give back to their profession by supporting newly assigned or experienced principals through mentoring (NAESP, n.d.). The National Mentor Program has two components: The Leadership Immersion Institute and the National Principals Mentor Certification Program. Seeing the imperative nature of having effective mentors in place, the NAESP developed and applied competencies that serve as the foundation for the two aforementioned mentoring programs. Table 3.2 displays the six School Leadership Mentor Competencies and suggested strategies to enhance mentor development as identified by NAESP (2011).
The Daresh five domain training model with learning and training content (Table 3.1) coupled with the six competencies and subsequent strategy regimen (Table 3.2) have been woven together to serve as the research framework for this study. To effectively combine the Daresh training model and the NAESP mentor competencies and strategies, I created a summative table that chunked and synthesized the specific learning and training content from the Daresh training model with the effective strategies designated in the NAESP Mentor Competencies. As a result, five Mentor Training Constructs were formed and this formation was enabled by identifying and drawing out the overlapping themes and constructs from both that matched emerging content from the review of literature. Table 3.3 presents this framework used for analysis in this study,
Table 3.2
The Alignment of NAESP School Leadership Mentor Competencies and Effective Mentor Development Strategies
Competencies
Adult Learning Practices and the
Practice of Professional Reflection and
Networking
Effective Oral and Written Communication Skills,
Effective Listening and Feedback Skills,
Communicate Clear Vision, and Practices
Adult Learning Theory Current on Leadership, Participates in Professional Organizationa, Leadership Role in the Study of Professional Practice Confidentiality, Trustworty Behavior and Encourages Open and Refective Conversations Conducts Action Research, Utilizes Assement to Adjust Mentoring, Maintenance of Reflective Portfolios Professional Outreach Activism through the Use of Technology and Networking and Mentoring as a Career Venture Competency 1: Self-Development
X
Competency 2:Utilizes Mentoring Best Practices
X
Competency 3: Active in Instructional LeadershipX
Competency 4: Respects Confidentiality and EthicsX
Competency 5: Contributes to Mentoring KnowledgeX
Competency 6: Promotes Forman and Informal Mentoring RelationshipsX
representing the “what and how” of the mentoring training coupled with the desired attributes and behaviors of the mentors. As a result of the training directed at general mentoring knowledge, school leadership skills, human relations skills, mentor process skills and mentor modeling behaviors, the six NAESP School Leadership Mentor Competencies as described should be obtainable.
The following narrative describes and explains how the five Mentor Training Constructs were developed by chunking and synthesizing the Daresh Five-Domain Mentor Training Model (2001) with the NAESP School Leadership Mentor Competencies (n.d.). For clarity purposes, the focus of this explanation will target each of the five mentor training constructs (five columns) as viewed in Table 3.3.
The first column, General Mentoring Knowledge, was developed by collapsing the learning and training concepts displayed in the first three columns of Table 3.1. As a result, the three key components of this construct include defining mentoring, benefits of mentoring, and potential problems. As can be seen in Table 3.3, the only program element that aligns to this construct is the first domain (i.e., Orientation to Mentoring) in Daresh’s Five-Domain Mentor Training Model.
The construct of School Leadership Skills includes the following elements related to school leadership: vision, style, philosophy, and instruction. This second construct was developed by combining elements of both the Daresh model and the NAESP model. Specifically, the School Leadership Skills construct is comprised of Domain 2 (Instructional Leadership) from the Daresh model and Competency 2 and 3 (‘Utilizes Mentoring Best Practices and Communicates Clear Vision’ and ‘Active in Instructional Leadership,’ respectively) from the
Table 3.3
Theoretical Framework Matrix
John Daresh’s Five-Domain Mentor Training Model General Mentoring Knowledge School Leadership Skills Human Relations Skills Mentor Process Skills Mentor Modeling Behaviors
Domain 1: Orientation to Mentoring X
Domain 2: Instructional Leadership X
Domain 3: Human Relations Skills X
Domain 4: Mentor Process Skills X
Domain 5: Local Implementation Issues X
NAESP School Leadership Mentor Competencies General Mentoring Knowledge School Leadership Skills Human Relations Skills Mentor Process Skills Mentor Modeling Behaviors Competency 1: Self-Development X X Competency 2:
Utilizes Mentoring Best Practices X X X
Competency 3:
Active in Instructional Leadership X X
Competency 4:
Respects Confidentiality and Ethics X X
Competency 5:
Contributes to Mentoring Knowledge
X
Competency 6:
Promotes Forman and Informal Mentoring Relationships
X
Note. This details the two models (Daresh’s five domains and NAESP’s six competencies in the left column) with the five chunked Mentor Training Constructs
displayed across the top of the table. The “X” designation details what specific learning and training contents from the Mentor Training Construct are aligned with the subsequent domain(s) and/or competency(s) of the two models.
NAESP model. In regards to the NAESP competencies, the author relied upon Competency 2’s requirement of communicating clear vision and Competency 3’s elements of being current on leadership and participating in professional organizations (see Table 3.2).
The third Mentor Training Construct, Human Relations Skills, was created by combining Domain 3 (Human Relations Skills) from the Daresh Model and specific strategies from Competencies 1 and 2 from the NAESP Model (see Table 3.2). Specifically, attention was given to the adult learning practices as outlined in NAESP’s Competency 1 and the practicing of adult learning theory as presented in Competency 2.
The fourth construct, Mentor Process Skills, involves problem solving, listening, communication, feedback, confidentiality, and observation and conference skills. This construct relies upon Daresh’s Domain 4 (Mentor Process Skills) and specific strategies from Competency 2 (Utilizes Mentoring Best Practices) and Competency 4 (Respects Confidentiality and Ethics) from the NAESP Model. As can be seen, the construct includes specific elements from NAESP’s Competency 2 (i.e., effective oral and written communication skills, as well as effective listening and feedback skills) and from NAESP’s Competency 4 (i.e., confidentiality).
Lastly, the fifth construct, Mentor Modeling Behaviors, is comprised of a myriad of items, including action research towards goals; current and active participation in professional organizations; the practice of networking, reflection, and trustworthiness; the use of technology; and the use of reflective portfolios, assessments, and mentoring as a career venture. The components of this construct were established by synthesizing and blending Daresh’s Domain 5 (Local Implementation Issues) and strategies outlined in NAESP’s Competencies 1, 3, 4, 5, and 6 (see Table 3.2). Specifically, the model presents the following strategies from each of these competencies:
• Competency 1: practice of professional reflection and networking; • Competency 3: current on leadership;
• Competency 4: trustworthy behavior;
• Competency 5: utilizes assessment to adjust mentoring and maintenance of reflective portfolios; and
• Competency 6: professional outreach activities through the use of technology and networking and mentoring as a career venture
The purpose of this summative table is to best capture and describe an exhaustive mentor training program (Daresh, 2001) with the desired behaviors, attributes and competencies (NAESP, n.d.) of an effective mentor. In order to categorize and group the training areas with the mentor competencies, larger constructs needed to be created that contained both areas of research. As a result, items that will be discovered through the document analysis and interview process will be tallied according to keywords and compared to the theoretical framework of this study.