Kriging ordinario estándar

Leadership can well be identified as a “living force” within an organisation; it is the human drive for change that takes the organisation to the next level. Leadership is also recognised as the influence that shapes the environment of the organisation (Lawn, 2013). Osborn, Hunt, and Jauch (2002) add that “leadership and its effectiveness is largely dependent on its context” (p. 797), as they explain that the role of leadership cannot be separated from the context in which it is

practised. As described by Caldwell (2006) educational leadership refers to the ability to nurture a learning community; it can also be defined broadly to include a nation, a state, but particularly a school. In education, the role of leadership is very much aligned to creating change through collaboration with colleagues. Educational leadership is interconnected, with skilful people who are advocates for change to make better their institution (Marx, 2006). This means that in distributed leadership, leaders work alongside subordinates to create change within the school environment for a better future. Members of the team could be either internally or externally associated with the institution. Preedy, Bennet, and Wise (2012) point out that leadership in education should focus on manipulating the contextual factors within the institution to build a platform for future influence. The two main styles of leadership that are apparent in PNG secondary schools are transactional leadership and transformational leadership. Some schools use one style or the other while other schools use both styles. Transactional leadership relates to the style of leadership in which an exchange takes place between the leader and the follower (Gardiner, 2006). The role and functions of transactional leadership are assigned to the person who has been designated to hold formal office, such as the school principal. This style of leadership is more concerned with: maintaining a normal flow of operations and uses disciplinary control and an array of incentives to influence employees to perform their best (Ingram, 2013). For example, if a follower effectively completes a set task as instructed by the leader, then the follower is rewarded. The rewarding by the leader could be either material or a verbal or written praise. On the other hand, Burns explains that transformational leadership embodies a mutual relationship that elevates followers to becoming leaders (as cited in Gardiner, 2006). Transformational leadership encompasses “shared” and “distributed leadership”. The role of leadership is distributed or shared with other members of the institution who are capable of overseeing the progress of the school. Bryant (2003) explains that transactional leadership illustrates the ability to inspire and “motivate followers largely through communication of high expectation” (p. 36).

The role of transformational or distributed leadership is therefore a shared responsibility and is not left to only one person (Harris, 2003). Leadership as practised in the two schools who participated in this study was distributed

leadership as the leadership team consisted of the principal, the deputy principals and the heads of the different subject departments. They were referred to as the school executive. Working together as a team, school leaders can realise the school’s vision through its mission. By combining initiative with constant dialogue, members in the team ensure that they identify themselves with the learning process and progress within the organisation. Taylor and Cava (2011) emphasise that the paramount role of school leadership is to improve the achievement of students in the school. School leaders set the path for the organisation by making deliberate plans; they motivate, inspire and make new things happen so that the institution moves forward (Hoyle & Wallace, 2005). Hallinger and Heck (2010) add that school leaders need to work with teachers to make collective decisions concentrating on the educational development of the school. Gronn (2003) affirms that leading and managing are work practices that are considered to be challenging.

School leaders have identified that they need knowledge, skills and the right kind of attitude to help them address contextual changes (Blase, 1993; Alcorn, 2011). School leaders have a vital role in delivery teaching and learning practices that are applicable and manageable. Bass, Avolio, and Goodheim (1987) and Blase (1993) recommend that those in leadership roles carry out study or research on how other leaders invigorate and galvanise their subordinates. This could help them develop tactics with which they can best carry out their role as decision makers even though Gorard (2005) however, argues that the problem is not about deciding on what method to use but it is using the strategies that will work to successfully implement the policy. This argument is an area of consideration for school leaders in decision making.

The role of Papua New Guinea secondary school leaders is to carry out directives stipulated by the National Education Department and the Provincial Education Board. Despite this, school leaders have created their own school policies where they see them as pertinent for the smooth running of their institution (Guy, 2009). Carrying out state directives is not an easy undertaking for school leaders. Kelegai and Middleton (2002) and Brydon and Lawihin (2013) confirm that eighty-five percent of the total population lives in rural areas, making it difficult to implement policies effectively.