II. CORPUS DE COMEDIAS Y LA CUESTIÓN DE LAS FECHAS
II. 11. L AS COMEDIAS EN EL CONTEXTO CRONOLÓGICO DE LA PICARESCA
The definition of long term care varies across countries, notably the required minimum number of caring hours. . This has a consequence on the support carers are entitled to receive.
When the dependent person is in the policy focus reconciliation of work and care for the carer is only achieved by general flexible working time arrangements adhered in general labour laws. France and Germany are following this way where part time work is a means by which carers are able to reconcile work and care. The Netherlands and Spain focus on the person in need also. However, they grant carers special rights like extra leave in emergencies for care reasons. Austria addresses mainly the dependents but in addition also the carer in their policies. There, carers can reduce their working time due to care obligations and have the right to raise hours again when the caring spell is over.
In Denmark, Sweden and Finland professional services are provided on such a high level that caring is really a choice and not an obligation. Further, working reduced hours is very common anyway which definitely facilitates the combination of work and care.
127 Support for carers of older people – some intranational and national comparisons: A review of the literature prepared for
the Audit Commission, Caroline Glendinning, National Primary Care Research and Development Centre at the University of Manchester; Audit Commission, UK, 2004
128 Support for carers of older people – some intranational and national comparisons: A review of the literature prepared for
the Audit Commission, Caroline Glendinning, National Primary Care Research and Development Centre at the University of Manchester; Audit Commission, UK, 2004
Allowances for carers can also have ambiguous effects. On the one hand it can be seen as a fair reimbursed for the time informal carers spend caring. On the other hand it can set incentives to leave the labour market. As with childcare it can be observed that only the availability of flexible working time models and the existence of supporting institutions (respite care, day care facilities) can deliver a combination of work and care.
Reasons for high labour market participation of persons with care obligations in Denmark and Finland can be seen in the general good conditions to reconcile work and family life – becoming manifest in a high level of state funded supporting services - which includes the manageable reconciliation of work and long-term care.
Table III.8: Summary of key national instruments / policies Country Policies to support reconciliation
work and care Allowances for carers Belgium No systematic policy: special
arrangements in the work place. Dependency insurance (Flanders) Denmark Extensive home help enables the
combination of work and care. Caregiver may be engaged by the municipality. Germany Dependence insurance is a new pillar.
Covers cognitive impairments.
Choice between professional services and informal care. Pension credits if caring for a dependent person. Spain Reduction of working hours with
reduced pay and unpaid leave. Carer’s Allowance (strict conditions) France No systematic policy. Autonomy allowance may not pay a
spouse carer. Netherlands Possibility for care leaves and career
brake because of care obligations.
Personal budget for elderly. Can pass it on to family carer.
Austria Complete range of rights (care leave
and Social security contributions) Flexibility in Carers allowance Poland No systematic policy. No allowance for long term carers Slovenia Limited measures (Unpaid leave, focus
on unemployed or part-time carers). In certain cases, family assistant is paid by local authorities. Finland Different services enable carers to
pursue a working life. Carer receives allowance according to caree’s needs. Sweden Provision of intensive home care
enables the combination of work and care. Pension credits.
Recent measures focus on paid kin carers by the Municipalities. United Kingdom Emphasis of work-life balance. Carers allowance. Pension credits.
In Sweden, Denmark and Finland there is a well-developed system of formal care services for older people, which reduces their need to rely on family carers. Home help services are extensive. Services are organised at local level. This has rendered possible a policy of de-institutionalisation. However, this later policy has reinforced the role of informal carers.
It was noted that in Denmark and Finland overall labour market participation is very high for both carers and non-carers. The difference in labour market participation between carers and non-carers is relatively low also in the UK, Germany, Austria, and the Netherlands. We may note that these countries are also the countries with the more developed services and allowances for long term care.
4.5 Conclusion
- Income support. It is generally means-tested and can not be considered as remuneration for the work carers are doing. Benefits of this kind can be found in the UK.
- Recognition of the carer’s role. Special allowances for carers are the expression of the appreciation for their work. An example is the Finnish Home Care Allowance.
- Payments equivalent to the wages of workers employed in home care. These are possible in Sweden and Denmark.
- Payments granted to dependent people, but meant for them to pay their carers with. Notably in Germany, The Netherlands, the UK and Sweden. There is a tendency to attach some social security rights to these payments.
- Flexible work arrangements and care leave aiming to maintain the labour force attachment; Generally all countries apply some form of such measures.
- Credits for periods spent out of employment in order to care. Pension credits are the most common. This concerns countries that require a formal relation between the caregiver and the dependent adult but also other countries too (Poland).
Pension credits may be generalised but they might have very different implications. In countries with a high female labour participation, credits may be added to a “normal” work history. In countries with a low female labour participation and short work histories, pension credits might have no impact. The beneficiaries might not have enough years of work and be below the threshold for any contributory benefit.
The ageing of the population requires new ways to finance long-term care. Dependency may be seen as a separate risk where individuals, employers and the State contribute for the financing of this new scheme. Public funds could bring a complement in order to guarantee a minimum quantity and quality of long-term care services to disadvantaged groups.
Finally, the different measures to assist dependent people ought to be neutral in their labour market implications. They ought to avoid distortions leading certain groups into situations with adverse long- term impact (employability or pension levels).
Concerning allowances, benefits should be designed in a way to support women’s employability. The different schemes ought to bring an income guarantee but also:
- Avoid isolation from the world of work and favour part time in order to keep links with the labour market;
- Reduce the duration of leaves as they might have negative effects on women’s employability and reintegration by the provision of home help;
- Promote sharing family caring responsibilities more equally between women and men. Removing obstacles to men’s use of long-term care benefits might be an important step toward greater equality.
The possibility to use a long-term allowance to pay an informal carer may push certain persons into the formal labour market (for example a formal contract is required in the Netherlands) but at the same time it may be an incentive for carers to leave their job. The design of allowances ought to avoid such distortions in the labour market.