Participants identified access to pornographic material from mediums such as social media and technological advances as one of the factors that lead to CSA. According to the participants, the advent of social media and uncontrolled access to technology through platforms such the World Wide Web, whatsapp and face book has increased children’s exposure to pornographic and explicit sexual material. The participants argued that exposure to such material leads children to want to experiment. Participants further argued that explicit sexual content, materials and videos were now readily available. Participants’ accession that access and exposure to explicit sexual content was another CSA contributory factor was corroborated by court files used in the study. Some files used in the study support the finding that access and exposure to sexual explicit content contributes to CSA. The files show that some CSA offenders are motivated to commit CSA offenses after being exposed to explicit sexual content. The CSA offenders had access and exposure to sexual explicit content influencing them to commit CSA offense. The following participants’ narratives show access and exposure to sexual explicit content as CSA contributory factor:
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There is easy access to pornography. Now pornography is just a click of a button away. So children view such videos and some of them end up trying to experiment what they see on the videos. You even now notice that there is an increase in juvenile offending who offend in sexual related matters because of access to pornography (Participant 17).
In this global village of technology our children can access pornography on their phone they have got access to uncensored television. They also seek to emulate the role models they see
(Participant 8).
The social media has also contributed to the sexual abuse of children. Girls are being lured into relationships using technology. The availability of pornographic material amongst children through technology and the use of technology put children at risk of sexual abuse. We have instances where one would tell you that the perpetrator showed the child some pornographic material before they sexually abused him or her. So CSA is worsened by technology (Participant 22).
The above participants’ accounts are supported by the following extracts from one of the reviewed court files. One of the files contained the following:
From the Probation Officer’s opinion; the juvenile; accused, 11 years, is aware of how sexual intercourse is performed from watching television (Harare case 53).
Similarly another file read:
The court did not lose site that the accused, 14 years, has been exposed to pornography at a tender age. It shows that his surroundings are not the best for a child at his age. This [access and exposure to sexual explicit content] influenced him to commit the offense (Harare case
145).
It is visible from selected participants’ accounts above that access and exposure to sexual explicit content by children is a notable CSA contributory factor. The advent of smart phones and social media increase children’s access to pornographic material and exposure to CSA. Zimbabwe has also witnessed the proliferation and increased access to technological devices increasing vulnerability of children to CSA. While offering positives, new trends in technology have the potential to contribute to CSA. Technological development increase access to pornographic materials. Access to the material in itself constitutes CSA at a level of sexual abuse by exposure. At another level, access to pornographic material may result in the children wanting to experiment and experience what they see on television and social media. Access to pornographic materials can explain why children commit CSA offenses. The availability of pornographic materials could point to a dearth in regulatory frameworks in the Information Technology and Communication (ICT) sector in the country. In addition, the availability of pornographic material to children, can point to laws not keeping pace with new technological advances further placing children at risk of CSA.
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The current finding s that exposure to explicit sexual content leads to CSA is supported by findings by Kacker et al (2007), Medecins Sans Frontierers (2011) and Martin (2014) who all observe that technological advances have the potential to expose children to non-contact sexual abuse. They further argue that the ascendancy of the internet has introduced new CSA aspects and that children are more likely to experience what they are exposed too. The findings of this study also confirm that there is a link between CSA and technological advances. Increased use and access to cell phones, digital television, the internet and exposure to foreign countries through migration and tourism, has seen the increased use and availability of pornographic materials among children.
The exposure of children to explicit sexual content has implications for several stakeholders. At the micro levels of parents need to monitor the use of technological devices. Again parent will need to educate their children on healthy and responsible use of technological devices. It is argued that while parent provide access to technological advances for their children. At the level of service providers there is need to acknowledge the potential role of technological devices in CSA. There is also need to provide appropriate training and responses. Martin (2014) found professional social workers ill prepared to deal with the growing problem of child sexual abuse images online (CSAIO). The lack of preparedness among professionals has implications for professional training. There seems to be need for the introduction of professional training curriculum that meets new CSA trends. At the level of government, it can be argued that there is need for constant revision of policies and statues to meet new trends such the use of new technology. Again, governments must ensure the enforcement of laws. It is argued that in most cases the problem is not the non existence of regulation but rather the implementation of existing regulations and policy framework.
5.3.2 Poverty
Poverty is another notable crosscutting socioeconomic circumstance leading to CSA identified in this study. Poverty in this context is the inability to meet minimal basic needs, having income that is below a given proportion of average income, the denial of basic capabilities that contribute to the decrease in life expectancy, participation, health, responsibility, freedom from CSA, environmental degradation and the absence of opportunities, in both its absolute and relative form (Sewpaul, 2014). From the 300 files reviewed in this study, poverty is arguably
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a cross cutting socio economic factor that places children at risk of CSA: trusting relatives, neighbours and friends with children; temporal isolation of children; absentee parents and guardians; cultural and religious beliefs; child trafficking; substance use; child labour; step parenting; disability; living arrangements and access and exposure to sexual explicit content. Participants reaffirmed that poverty was a key cross cutting socio economic circumstance that contributed to CSA. Participants explained that high levels of poverty pushed children into sexual work; parents to leave children unattended while working long hours: locally and internationally; children being engaged as domestic workers and children being married off by families. The participants also explained that due to poverty children were directly and indirectly exposed to CSA. Direct CSA related to children having to exchange sex for favours; working as commercial sex workers and being married off. Indirect exposure relates to children being left alone while parent worked; children working as domestic workers and children taking up household roles. Some participants, however identified children from well to do backgrounds as being equally susceptible to CSA. This group of participants explained that children from well to do backgrounds could afford sex parties, substance use and exposure to explicit sexual content. In addition children from well to do backgrounds were often left in the care of domestic labour: who could end up committing CSA offenses. The role of poverty in leading to CSA is evident in the following comments by participants:
The levels of poverty in this country are really staggering. You find instances where people have to leave their families in order to look for livelihoods. You find fathers are going out of the country maybe South Africa, Botswana or the UK and they are leaving children to be taken care of by relatives, sometimes by friends and sometimes by well-wishers. That leaves the child in a vulnerable situation (Participant 20).
Similarly, another participant made the following remarks:
Children are left alone in their homes. The older persons, parents and caregivers are going to work. They do not afford someone who will look after the children. So because of poverty children are left unattended and people will take advantage they will come and abuse the children. Also due to poverty people cannot afford medical services. In some situations you will find people saying that if you cannot afford to go to clinics [health centre] to access treatment for example HIV, you might be cured by having sexual intercourse with a child. You find they end up abusing children (Participant 36).
Other participant noted that poverty contributed to child prostitution. The following participants’ accounts capture the effects of absolute poverty and how poverty leads to child prostitution:
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We have realised that one of the key drivers can be poverty. Poverty can put children at risk at times children are sent to sell to generate income that kind of scenario puts children at risk of rape or sexual violence. So I think poverty can contribute to child sexual abuse. So we feel it’s important to assist the survivors with skills that will enable them to move out of poverty
(Participant 12).
Similarly another participant noted that:
With the current economic situation, we have both boys and girls dropping out of school. What do you expect a 14 or 15 year girl old to do [out of school]? You should move around in town you will be shocked. Children as young as 12 years are into prostitution. Visit one of the night clubs you will be stunned. Young girls strip naked in the streets at night (Participant 9).
Another participant also echoed the following:
If you see here in Y there is a place near X; there is a lady who is recruiting children. These children are below the age of 18. She would make them sell the eggs during the day but during the night there are men who are coming to sleep with these children. So the children come here and we ask them and we ask them why and they say I had come here looking for a job. So it means that it is because of the economic hardships. If it was not because of that meaning they should have been at school wherever place they came from. And I don't think there is a parent who would want his or her child to work when they are below the age of 18 years (Participant
13).
Other participants said:
I am told usually most of the children are below 16 years. They go there for prostitution now some of them are attached to senior prostitutes where we are saying they recruit them working for them and taking the money. I did a case I think last week it should be last week. One of the ladies recruited a child for purposes of prostitution. The children get used to sexual intercourse making their own money. But I hear it is happening in Epworth [20km from Harare]
(Participant 16).
We have seen this proliferation of girls coming into Gokwe urban in search of maybe greener pastures. Most of these girls come from broken up families as you know the impact of HIV. Maybe the parents are late and most of these children are bread winners, in child headed families. Mostly because of poverty children are pushed to prostitution (Participant 29).
Some participants in this study also explained that due to absolute poverty, families could be forced to marry off their girl children, promoting CSA. One of the participants said:
Our economic situation in the country is forcing families to marry off their children [the girl ]at an early age for economic benefit either reducing the expenditure in the house [ through drooping out of school] or getting income for the family in terms of lobola [ bride price] or the in laws now contribute to the upkeep of the family so girls are being married off at an early age and that contributes to sexual violence or even gender based violence because whilst they are in the marriage institute they are still children and there is bound to be friction and conflict and they often married off to an older person they are susceptible to
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abuse . it … goes down to boys and girls trying to seek income to bring into the family they would resort to sexual activity if they do not have anything they end up selling their bodies and then boys as well as I said before there are also sugar mummies I will take care of you so they resort to engaging in sexual activity with older women (Participant 2).
Participants in this study also identified poverty in its relative form as a CSA socio economic factor. They explained that there existed relative differences in CSA due to differences in socio economic backgrounds of children. One of the participants remarked:
In other situations in cities there are other issues related to children with inadequate schooling requirements this has also tended to lure children into abuse. They are lured by commuter omnibus drivers, for instance, who can also pay and provide such material benefits for them
(Participant 22).
Another participant said:
These days every child is at risk even those from wealthy backgrounds. When parents are busy engaging in economic activities they leave their children with maids or garden boys so you will be surprised that every child is at risk (Participant 9).
Similarly another participant said:
These children [from well to do backgrounds] will be having lots of money ………. so she [the child] has plenty of time to be out there. And out there she gets (sexually) abused. And out there are these sex parties going on (Participant 23).
The following extracts from selected court files used in the study demonstrate how poverty: absolute and relative leads to CSA:
Child asked the accused to carry her mother to hospital who was not feeling well. When they returned for the hospital, she asked for a lift. On their way accused parked in a secluded bushy area and asked for sex as a token of appreciation for taking her mother to hospital (Harare
case 80).
In August 2015, at around 1700 hours, the child, 16 years, went to Crest Breeders forest to fetch firewood for cooking. While in the forest the accused, 32 year old neighbour, suddenly appeared from behind. He pulled her down and raped her (Harare case 106).
Poverty within the child’s ecology contributes to CSA in many ways. At the micro level, poverty pushes parents and children into a survival mode. This study has identified children of absentee parents as CSA vulnerable; parents marrying off their children and children engaging in transactional sex: transactional CSA as survival strategies. Again, in an attempt to escape absolute poverty, parents become absentee parents as highlighted above, leaving their children CSA vulnerable. Parents, who work in country, work for longer hours staying away from their children leaving their children in the care of other people or in some cases alone
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without supervision. Some parents opt to migrate in search of opportunities leaving their children at risk of abuse. While parents can provide for their children materially, their children remain at risk of CSA. For those who cannot provide for their children, the children may be forced to contribute to the family’s income further exposing children to the elements of sexual abuse. CSA elements include child prostitution, child marriage, being on the streets, illegal mining and other activities that place the children at risk of CSA.
Secondly, absolute poverty at the micro level may result in parents not affording to send their children to school. Out of school children are exposed to perpetrators who are usually known to include the neighbours, relatives, family friends and co lodgers. The inability to meet basic needs may lead children into to transactional sex discussed above. Children may be forced into consequential relationships in an attempt to escape absolute poverty and to meet basic needs. In addition, children may be pushed into early marriages as a poverty escape route. Given that more than two thirds of the child population in Zimbabwe lives below the food poverty line with little or no access to basic services such as education and health; CSA will remain problematic (Ministry of Labour and Social Services, 2011).
This study argues that absolute poverty is a strong factor resulting in CSA among children in Zimbabwe. Absolute poverty influences accommodation, the ability of families to send children to school, pushing children into economic activities, early marriages and transactional sex. These poverty related factors may result in CSA. This study validates Optimus Foundation (2016, p.20) argument that “poverty sometimes sets the conditions for child maltreatment to occur.” Similarly, Jones and Jemmott (2009) established the role poverty in pushing children into transactional relationships. Research by Save the Children also found poverty as a powerful CSA driver among children in Mozambique. Poverty pushed children into early marriages and transaction sex with older men. Calves, Cornwell, and Enyegue (1996) observe a cultural norm in Cameroon where poor adolescent girls exchange sexual services for food, gifts and money. Sossou and Yogtiba (2009) also observe a similar trend in West Africa were young girls aged eleven to fourteen years are abused by men known as ‘godfathers. ’ Chitereka also notes the “sugar daddies,” and “sugar mummies”, phenomenon in Zimbabwe: older men and women commit transactional in exchange for money and other favours due to rampant poverty in Zimbabwe.
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Poverty in its relative form also affects the child’s ecology at both the micro and macro levels. Relative to other countries in the region and internationally, it can be argued that Zimbabwe is poor. Relative poverty at this macro level therefore pushes parents and guardians to migrate to well to do countries leaving their children behind and susceptible to CSA. At the micro level it can be argued that children from relatively well to do families are at risk of CSA. This finding confirms an earlier finding by Zimbabwe National Statistical Agency, United Nations Children’s Fund and Collaborating Center for Operational Research and Evaluation (2013) that CSA occurs in both low and high income families in Zimbabwe. The finding that children from relatively well off backgrounds bring out the role of relative poverty in CSA vulnerability. While it has been argued that absolute poverty increase CSA vulnerability, relative poverty is also a CSA risk factor. Children from high income families may lack parental guidance as parents and guardians are busy working and earning. The role of absentee parents in CSA has