La enseñanza y aprendizaje de la Física 50

Previous studies of cultural differences have identified the large number of dimensions that differ between cultural groups (Parson 1951; Ackoff & Emery 1972; Douglas 1978). According to Reisinger and Turner (2003), people from different cultural backgrounds generally have different rules of social interaction, values and perceptions.

Their study provided 10 sets of cultural dimensions proposed by several researchers including Parson (1951), Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck (1961), Stewart (1971), Hall (1960; 1966; 1973; 1976; 1977; 1983), Hall and Hall (1987), Hofstede (1980; 1984; 1991; 2010), Schein (1992), Trompenaars (1984; 1993; 1998), Maznevski (1994) and Maznevski et al.‘s (2002). All dimensions are found to impact on social interaction and individual perceptions (Gudykunst et al. 1988). Cultural dimensions provide ways to understand peoples‘ behaviour and communication differences across cultures; some of these dimensions are presented as follows:

Parsons‟ (1951) Pattern of Variables

Parsons pattern is commonly used; this pattern differentiates culture from individual choices made prior to engaging in action:

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 Affectivity-Affective Neutrality refers to the degree to which people seek gratification

 Universalism-Particularism refers to modes of categorizing people or objects

 Diffuseness-Specificity refers to types of responses to people or objects

 Ascription-Achievement refers ways of treating people or objects in terms of qualities

 Instrumental-Expressive refers to nature of the goals people seek in interactions with others

 Structural Tightness: the set refers to rules or regulations are restrain on people' behaviour. The degree to which the norms, rules and constraints are placed on people‘s behaviour (Reisinger & Turner 1998).

Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck‟s (1961) Cultural dimensions

Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck (1961) provide the dimensions of six basic cultural value orientations:

 Toward Humans refers to human beings may be perceived as good and evil, or evil; changeable, unchangeable

 Toward Nature refers to humans may be subjected to nature

 Toward Activity refers to activity in cultures may be ‗being‘, ‗being-in- becoming‘ or ‗doing‘

 Toward Time refers to time in past, present and future

 Toward Relationship among People refers to relationship among linear, collateral and individual

 Toward Space refers to space in public, private, and mixed.

Stewart‟s (1971) Cultural patterns

Stewart (1971) divides cultural patterns into four major elements, including:

 Activity Orientation refers to the way people view actions and how they express themselves through activities

 Social Relations Orientation refers to the way people relate to one another

 Self-orientation refers to the way people look at themselves, what motivates their actions

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 World Orientation refers to the way that people locate themselves into the spiritual world and nature

Hall‟s (1960; 1966; 1973) and Hall and Hall‟s (1987) Cultural dimensions Hall differentiates cultures on the basis of five major orientation elements as follows:

 Human Nature refers to agreements

 Activity Orientation refers to monochronic/polychromic

 Human Relationships refers to amount of space, possessions, friendship, communication

 Relation to Time refers to past/future

 Space Orientation refers to public/private

Hall‟s (1976; 1977; 1983) Cultural dimensions Hall also differentiates cultures in terms of:

 Context refers to the level of information included in a communication message

 Space refers to ways of communicating through handling of personal space

 Time refers to different perceptions and orientations towards time

 Information flow refers to speed of messages between individuals

 Language: refers to high context cultures and low context cultures

Hofstede‟s (1980; 1984; 1991; 2010) Cultural dimensions

From the study of Hofstede, national culture can be contrasted and compared with six dimensions:

 Power Distance refers to the degree to which members of a collective expect power to be distributed equally.

 Uncertainty Avoidance refers to the extent to which a society relies on social norms, rules, and procedures.

 Individualism-Collectivism refers to the degree to which individual goals and needs take primacy over group goals and needs

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 Long term Orientation refers to whether a society exhibits a pragmatic future-oriented perspective or a conventional historic point of view

 Indulgence vs. Restraint refers to the extent to which a society allows "relatively free gratification of basic and natural human desires related to enjoying life and having fun," as represented by the "indulgence" point on the continuum, relative to a society that "controls gratification of needs and regulates by means of strict social norms" (Hofstede 2011).

 Masculinity-Femininity refers to the degree to which people value work and achievement versus gender

Schein‟s (1992) Cultural dimensions

Schein differentiates cultures on the following dimensions:

 The Nature of Human Relationships refers to individualism/collectivism, participation and involvement, role relationships

 The Nature of Human Activity refers to doing/being/being-in-becoming, work/ family/personal

 The Nature of Human Nature: refers to evil/good/mixed

 The Nature of Relations with Environment refers to control/ harmony/ subjugation

 The Nature of Time refers to past/present/near or far-future

 The Nature of Reality and Truth refers to external

physical/social/individual reality, high/low context

 The Nature of Space refers to intimacy/personal/social/public, high/low status

Trompenaar‟s (1984; 1993; 1998) Cultural dimensions Trompenaar distinguishes national cultures by their orientation toward:

 Universalism vs. particularism

 Individualism vs. collectivism (communitarianism)

 Neutral vs. emotional

 Specific vs. diffuse

 Achievement vs. ascription

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 Attitude to environment

Maznevski‟s (1994) Cultural dimensions

Maznevski differentiates cultures on the basis of their orientation towards:

 Human Nature refers to good/evil, changeable

 Relation to Nature refers to subjugation/mastery/ harmony

 Activity Orientation refers to doing/being, containing and controlling (thinking)

 Human Relationships refers to individual/collective, hierarchical.

Maznevski et al.‟s (2002) Cultural orientations and dimensions

 Nature of humans refers to good/evil and changeable/unchangeable

 Relation to broad environment refers to control, balance and direct change environment around

 Activity consists of doing, thinking and being in activity

 Time refers to time in past, present and future in decision criteria

 Relationship among people refers to relationship between individual, collective and hierarchical

 Space refers to space in public and private section