The fifth theory identified is Experiential Learning. There is significant literature on the subject of experiential learning both in mainstream education and in the simulation literature as many healthcare personnel and disciplines can relate to this underpinning and pivotal education theory.
Rationale
The educational concept of Experiential Learning is a well-established approach in adult education theory. There is frequent reference to Experiential Learning in mainstream education (Kolb & Kolb, 2005) and healthcare simulation education literature. A search of the simulation literature provides a number of publications related to Experiential Learning (Rubino & Freshman, 2001; Morgan et al., 2002; Underberg, 2003; Sewchuk, 2005; Kayes, Kayes & Kolb, 2005; Fowler, 2007; Waldner & Olsen, 2007; Miller et al., 2008; Kolb &Kolb, 2009; Ker & Bradley, 2010; Lisko & O’Dell, 2010; Humphreys, 2013; McLeod,
2013). This indicates that the literature is identifying and demonstrating the need for an education theory underpinning educational activities. However there are far less publications – in simulation education – where research has demonstrated how that recognition has been subsequently applied and measured in terms of outcomes.
Experiential learning as an education theory strongly resonates with simulation as a learning and teaching process - due to the very essence of most simulation-based learning being experiential in design and intent. But Experiential Learning is not just about the exposure to and the doing of an activity – it is also about how the participant reviews, processes, reflects and demonstrates an outcome as a result. It is not just the experience itself – although that provides the relevant context and trigger(s) for the learner to acquire or refresh and apply knowledge, feelings, attitudes and skills. Importantly it is Experiential Learning that addresses the needs and wants of the learner - and this requires the learner’s personal involvement, that it is self-initiated; it is evaluated by the learner as to its relevance and that it has all-encompassing effects on the learner. Indeed Experiential Learning is providing a platform for Constructivist learning to occur.
There are many theorists who describe Experiential Learning from their different perspectives and their focus. It is not the intention in this conceptual framework to exposé them all but rather to give consideration to the most appropriate one(s) that suit the needs of simulation educators and users. Those noted here are the most reviewed and who have most impacted on the contemporary theory mentioned here.
While the founders of this approach include John Dewey, Kurt Lewin, Karl Rogers, Jean Piaget – whose works have all influenced David Kolb - it is Kolb’s Experiential Learning Theory and four-stage model – based on Lewin’s graphic - that dominates current approaches to experiential learning, and one that lends itself to healthcare simulation education.
Kolb's experiential learning theory and learning styles model
Kolb (1984) saw learning – the creating of knowledge, skill and attitudes – occurred as a result of an exposure to an experience and the transforming of that experience into the learning outcome. He also identified that learning is based on how learners prefer to learn. Kolb’s Experiential Learning Theory establishes four distinct learning styles -or preferences - which are based on a four-stage learning cycle (courtesy of Lewin). Kolb's model offers both
a way to understand individual learning styles, and also an explanation of a cycle of Experiential Learning that applies to all learners (Figure 7).
Figure 7: Kolb's Experiential Learning Cycle (Clarke, 2014)
While the Experiential Learning Cycle demonstrates the various experiential elements the following table (Table 5) helps contextualise how a learner in each of the elements perceives and behaves.
Concrete Experience (CE) Reflective Observation (RO) Abstract Conceptualization (AC) Active Experimentation (AE) Learner emphasises personal involvement with people in everyday situations Learner understands ideas and situations from different points of view
Learning involves using theories, logic and ideas, rather than feelings, to understand problems or situations. Learning takes an active form - experimenting with changing situations. Learner tends to rely
more on feelings than on systematic
approach to problems and situations
In a learning situation the learner relies on patience, objectivity, and careful judgement would not necessarily take any action
Learner relies on systematic planning and develops theories and ideas to solve problems.
Learner takes a practical approach and concerned with what really works as opposed to simply watching a situation.
In a learning situation, the learner relies on ability to be open- minded and adaptable to change
Learner relies on their own thoughts and feelings in forming opinions
Table 5: Kolb's four stages in the cycle of experiential learning Modified from JCU Workplace Educators Resource Package Website: http://www.jcu.edu.au/wiledpack/modules/fsl/JCU_090460.html
Kolb's learning styles contextualised within the experiential learning cycle Kolb (1984) indicated that there is a level of connectivity between the Experiential Learning Cycle and Learning Styles. Kolb put forward the notion that the learning style of an individual is the combination of two pairs of preferences and it is that combination of these paired preferences that guides how an individual learns. This includes how a learner approaches an activity and how the learner responds to, embraces and understands the experience.
Kolb (1984) proposed that the combination of these preferences creates four main learning styles. Kolb placed these preferences as lines of axis, each with contradictory learning modes at either end. These are demonstrated as (Figure 8);
Figure 8: Kolb's Four Main Learning Preferences (Clarke, 2014)
Kolb (1984) demonstrated the inter-relationship and tensions of these learning preferences through the use of a vertical and horizontal axis learning model (Figure 9) and when overlaying these on the Experiential Learning Cycle (Figure 7) the learner’s preferred Learning Style emerges.
Figure 9: Kolb's Learning Model (Clarke, 2014)
Concrete Experience - CE (feeling) vs Abstract Conceptualization - AC (thinking) Active Experimentation - AE (doing) vs Reflective Observation - RO (watching)
Figure 9 demonstrates the connection between the two planes of perception and processing – and where the learner might be – depending on the experience itself, its context, their tacit knowledge and experiences – and their learning style. According to Kolb (1984) a learner with a dominant learning preference of ‘thinking’ and ‘doing’ thus has a ‘Converger’ learning style. A learner with a dominant learning preference of ‘watching’ and ‘thinking’ has an ‘Assimilating’ learning style. A learner with a dominant learning preference of ‘thinking’ and ‘watching’ will be more likely a ‘Diverger’ and a ‘feel’ and ‘do’ person will be an ‘Accommodator’.
Table 6 adds further ‘preferences’ under each of the four learning styles to assist in the understanding of how people perceive their learning strengths and weaknesses, capacities and capabilities. This informs the developer when designing simulations especially if the developer has a profile of the individuals within the learning cohort.
Diverging Assimilating Converging Accommodating preference for feeling
and watching - CE/RO preference for thinking and watching - AC/RO preference for thinking and doing -
AC/AE
preference for feeling and doing - CE/AE prefers to watch rather
than do
requires good, clear explanation rather than practical opportunity
solves problems prefers learning that is "hands-on" likes to gather information and brainstorm prefers readings, lectures, exploring models and theories
uses learning to find solutions to practical situations
acts on "gut" and intuition rather than logic
will use imagination to problem solve
needs time to think things through
prefers technical tasks takes a practical, experiential approach is able to look at things
from different perspectives
will have a concise, logical approach to learning
likes to experiment with new ideas, to simulate and to work with practical applications
is attracted to new challenges and experiences
generates ideas and prefers group work learning
will organise
information clearly and logically
finds practical uses for ideas and problems
relies on others for information and problem solving rather than carry out own analysis
is sensitive, imaginative and emotional
considers ideas and concepts are important
prefers practical problem solving rather than dealing with social or interpersonal issues
prefers to work in teams
will have broad cultural interests
creates models/theories sets targets and actively works to achieve them. is interested in people will have a preference
for abstract ideas and theories - less focused on people
will listen with an open mind
will accept personal feedback
Table 6: Learner style characteristics
Modified from JCU Workplace Educators Resource Package Website: http://www.jcu.edu.au/wiledpack/modules/fsl/JCU_090460.html
This profiling of learning styles offers those designing, developing and delivering simulations opportunities to reflect on how teaching and especially learning can be better focused and placed according to preferred methods. However many people respond to all types of learning styles to some extent. By being cognizant of this information and addressing the differing learning style preferences, means being more appropriately prepared to contextualise and customise the simulation to gain maximum effect of the intervention. That is, providing the best learning preference-mix opportunity during the experiential cycle for learning outcomes to be noticeably achieved.
The design and delivery issue of a course is one of accommodation. The nature and timing of many simulation activities means that to address a range of different learning preferences becomes problematic for the educator. However that does not mean it cannot be attempted in efforts to facilitate best learning. There will be learners with a strong preference for a particular learning style who will become frustrated because they are not capable of easily switching between different styles. Assimilators will be uncomfortable being placed in a challenging situation without some form of instruction, while Accommodators will be frustrated by lots of instructions and rules before getting into the challenging situation. So it beholds the educator to provide the best positive opportunities for students, while exposing students through simulation, how to develop skills in how to learn, across different styles of learning.
Situated cognition theory (situated learning)
This particular theory as espoused by Brown, Collins and Duguid (1989) would appear to ‘sit’ within the larger Experiential Learning theory. It has social, contextual and constructivist elements in that the learning of knowledge and skills occurs in various contexts that represent and reflect the way these will be applied in the real world. This theory encourages the immersion of learners in an authentic learning environment that approximates as closely as possible the situation in which the new knowledge, practice or attitude will be required. This practical approach reflects a situated perspective by seeking to contextualize learning – and this closely aligns with the intent of simulation.