La importancia de la interdisciplinariedad en el tratamiento del

The ruling party’s (Kenya African National Union (KANU) manifestos of 1963 and 1969 declared the government’s commitment to providing seven years of free primary education (Nungu, 2010; Somerset, 2009; Oketch and Rolleston, 2007; Sifuna, 2007; Eshiwani, 1993). The government considered education as key to social and economic development while formal schooling was perceived as a means to social mobility and quality of life which contributed to the rapid expansion of educational system at all levels (Buchmann, 2001; Bogonko, 1992; Eshiwani, 1993). It was expected that education would result in the creation of

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values, attitudes, creativity, emotional and physical quality of life (Keriga and Bujra, 2009); ‘health, child care and reduced fertility rates among other things’ were also stressed (Sifuna, 2007, p691). By 1963, there were less than 900,000 children attending primary school but by 1992 the number increased to 5.53million children (Republic of Kenya, 1993).

In 1964, Grade IV examination was discontinued and the 7 year primary education was fully implemented in 1966; as stated by Somerset (2007; Sifuna, 2007; Bogonko, 1992), the number of children proceeding to the Kenya Primary Education Certificate examination (KPE) increased from 62,000 in 1964 to 133,000 in 1966. The integration of racial schools into one national education system and removal of the Grade IV examination (Somerset, 2007; Oketch and Rolleston, 2007; Sifuna, 2007; Eshiwani, 1993; Bogonko, 1992) led to improvements in access to primary education for Africans who had been excluded during the colonial period. Conversely, school fees remained a barrier restricting access for the majority who could not afford them while opened access to emerging African political elites who could afford the fees in the well-equipped schools formerly owned by the Europeans (Somerset, 2007; Oketch and Rolleston, 2007; Buchmann, 2001). Figure 3 shows the trend of the age 6 population estimate and enrolment from 1960-2005.

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Figure 3 Age 6 Population Estimate & Enrolment 1960-2005 (Source: Adapted from Somerset, 2007)

During the early 1960’s most special education schools were still run by missionaries, while the government engaged in the training of teachers (figure 2) for the hearing impaired as well as the use of Braille for the visually impaired. The formation of associations was initiated by private organisations, for example The Kenya Society for the mentally, ‘handicapped’ accompanied by the opening of the only school for such children (Jacaranda Special School in Nairobi).

In 1971 a second presidential decree discontinued tuition fees for the most geographically disadvantaged areas mainly in the North-Eastern Province, and parts of the Rift Valley and Coast provinces (Nungu, 2010; Sifuna, 2000). By 1973 a further decree discontinued tuition fees in all regions for Standards one to four with a uniform fee of KES60 (UK£0.442pence) for Standards five to seven pupils (Somerset 2009, Oketch and Rolleston, 2007). This decree was claimed to have brought the country close to achieving universal primary education (UPE) (Somerset, 2007; Sifuna, 2005). The enrolment in class one increased from 380,000 pupils to 950,000 pupils. Table 5 below shows the relationship between Standard one (1) intake and fees or non fee paying education systems from 1974- 2003. Muthwii (2004) explains that these measures were expected to have increased enrolment despite the government’s failure to closely scrutinise the

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financial and logistical implications of these policies (Omwami, 2010). Although school fees had been discontinued (King, 2007; Somerset, 2007; Oketch and Rolleston, 2007) primary schools had to use a building levy since no measures

had been put in place to replace the lost revenue. The building levy expenses were charged to parents. In most cases, the levy

turned out to be higher than the school fees charged. Enrolments in most districts fell back to their original levels after the introduction of the building levy (Somerset, 2007). In the 1970-1974 Development Plan the government pledged to support 50 schools per year by providing trained teachers, materials and inspectorate personnel. The government failed to fulfil this promise (Buchmann, 2001). By 1974, government spending on education was 34.5% of recurrent expenditure (Republic of Kenya, 1988), an indication that other forms of aid would be needed to support the education system. The Kenyan government also reacted to the educational developments initiated by the local communities and rewarded additional funds to well established ones. This implied unequal access of education for children from poor communities.

The Kenyan government may also be criticised for enhancing its own legacy and failing to provide equal education opportunities to all children (Abilla, 1988). Apparently the recommendations of the Gachathi Report (1976) which partly emphasised the creation of public awareness on causes of disabilities did not seem to have any effect on the attitudes of parents on children with SEN. Parents did not seem to believe that visually impaired children would learn and they were reluctant to take them to school. This initial post independence era failed to fully control the expansion of educational demand and reflects the significance of enforcing education policies in line with the future needs of the country (Psacharopoulus and Patrinos (2004). On the other hand, the government had started partnerships with organisations like the International Labour Office (ILO) for the provision of vocational and rehabilitation training in technical skills (Miles, 1996). There were also attempts to initiate home visits by teachers, mostly for the visually impaired children (mobile teachers) (McCall and Best, 1990; Economic growth in the late 1960s and 1970s was less positive (Samoff;

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2009; Somerset, 2007; Sifuna, 2005; Daun, 2000) and the government could not successfully sustain a policy of universal and free primary education. As a result of the economic decline there were fewer funds available for education and a shift of costs occurred from public authorities to parents and local communities, eventually worsening educational quality.

By 1978, universal primary education (UPE) had not been achieved but the enrolment rate had grown from less than 50% in 1963 (891,553 to more than 85% by 1978 (Republic of Kenya Development Plan 1979-1983). Primary education was recognised as the foundation of economic and national development.

‘The primary stage of education is the most important for any child since it is here that basic knowledge is provided to the child and foundations for an economically productive and satisfying life are laid’ (Republic of Kenya, 1979, p154).

Primary level enrolment increased by 23.3% between 1964 and 1968 from 980,849 to 1,209,680 pupils. By 1983, 4.3 million pupils were enrolled, nearly 93% of school-age pupils. This is an increase from 60% in 1963. The highest rates of growth were between 1970 and 1974 after the abolition of school fees which was initially done in semi-arid areas and for needy cases in the country and for the first four years in 1974 throughout the country (Somerset, 2007; Buchmann, 2001; Bogonko, 1992. The following table shows the enrolment for Standard one which continued to rise but fell in the years when fees were required.

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Table 5: Summary of impact of free and fee paying primary education systems from 1974-2003

Adapted from (Somerset, 2009)

In 1984, the Mackay Report (1981) was initiated and recommended changing from a 7-4-2-3 system of education. The former system was seen as too

Year Free Fees paying

Comments 1974 Class1-4 Class

5-8

Class One (1) enrolment increased from 380,000 to 950,000 pupils. (Gross Enrolment Rate (GER) rose from 93 – 221%).

1975 - 1978

Class 1- 5 6-8 118,000 (19.5%) entrants to Class One were more than 8 years old. Drop-out rates increased and Grade 5 lost nearly 55% of original number since fees had to be paid in the subsequent years.

Building levy - £60 (Kshs600) was also a hindrance to enrolment. 1979 Class 1-8 7-8 Grade 1 enrolment rose to 977,000

(63%) over 1978. Entrants more than 8 years – 274,000 (28%).

Additional facilities required for schools. Local communities expected to fund through self-help activities ‘Harambee’ – Swahili word) meaning (pulling together). Rise in cost of building class using permanent materials (£2437)

Prolonged pupils’ absences, followed by dropping out when parents could not afford

Survivors to Grade 8 – 400,000 Drop out between Grade 1 and 2 (20%) 1980 - 1984 Cost Sharing Cost Sharing

1983 Grade 5 drop out to 45% 8-4-4 system parents had to support the schools. 1985 - 2003 Cost Sharing Cost Sharing

8-4-4 Stagnation in enrolment. GER – dropped from 99% in 1984 to 87% in 1999.

2003 FPE FPE Grade 1 enrolment – 0.969m from 2002 (35% increase)

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academic, elitist, and theoretical, while the new system, the 8-4-4 system which started in 1985, placed more emphasis on vocational subjects in the final years of primary education and throughout secondary school (Nungu, 2010; Somerset, 2006; Sifuna, 2000). The more practical and vocational subjects were considered as a means to:

‘Instil realistic attitudes and aspirations regarding employment in both parents and school leavers (Republic of Kenya, 1989 p212).

Although the Kenyan government had initiated vocational and rehabilitation training, the enrolment of children said to have SEN is questionable since at this time the government was dealing with other problems like malnourished children, immunisation, provision of health services and funding for children said to have SEN. Furthermore, different ministries (Ministry of Home Affairs, Health and Education) were dealing with children said to have SEN (figure 2) and there was no specific policy on special education until 1980 when a draft was prepared (Abilla, 1988) with the first policy being launched in 2009. The government, as explained in Chapter three was relying on circulars. It started paying more attention to SEN by establishing KISE in 1986 for the training of teachers. The Kamunge Report (1988) recommended the appointment of special education inspectors at district level. This would enhance liaison between the village heads (Chiefs and district officials) on the education of children said to have SEN. Although President Daniel Arap Toroitich Moi has been criticised for enacting policies that were politically popular but of questionable value for long term national development (Muthwii, 2004; Amutabi, 2003), some of the policies signified greater opportunities for all Kenyan children— not least the increased enrolment rates in all sectors of education. Vocational subjects increased costs of schooling, cost of employing new teachers, equipping workshops, wider subjects and examinations in order to compete for higher and formal employment. Access to primary education in the mid 1980s and into the 1990s did not expand notably. This was due to the implementation of the Structural Adjustment Programmes (SAPs) initiated by the World Bank and International Monetary Fund (IMF); (MoE, 2007; Somerset, 2007; Oketch and Rolleston, 2007; Sifuna, 2005).

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After Structural Adjustment Programmes (SAPs) policies the role of the state was reduced and that of the market highlighted in determining economic activities and policies (Oketch et al, 2010). As a consequence, cost sharing was introduced and parents had to carry the burden of educating their children. Enrolment declined and only started to improve after 2003 when the FPE was announced (Samoff, 2007; Oketch and Rolleston, 2007). One of the consequences of cost sharing has been a decline in school attendance and enrolment, since not all parents could afford to cover the full costs of their children’s education (Oketch et al., 2010; Oketch and Rolleston, 2007; Sifuna, 2007). These costs included uniforms, textbooks and other instructional material. Also, the parents were to contribute to school construction and maintenance costs.

Furthermore, the inadequate provision of complementary inputs like textbooks meant that the effectiveness of teachers in delivering quality education was reduced significantly (Vos et al., 2004). Hence the objective of this study is to explore how teachers view SEN while ensuring equal opportunities for children said to have SEN under the given circumstances. With a view to establishing a more democratic political system, President Mwai Kibaki declared free primary education in 2003. The commitment by government to continue free primary education saw 1.5 million additional children enrolling in primary schools between January 2003 and June 2004 (MoEST, 2004). Nevertheless, teacher shortage and inadequate facilities continued to hinder the initiative (King, 2007; Somerset, 2007; Sifuna, 2007). Moreover, problems stemming from poverty like families’ inability to provide necessities such as uniforms, have kept many children away from school to date (Oketch and Rolleston, 2007).