La impresión 3D

Initially, earlier definitions of acculturation focused on group acculturation and did not consider individual acculturation. Individual acculturation was also coined ‘psychological acculturation’ which was defined as a change in the psychology of the individual (Berry, 1997; Maynard-Reid, 2005). Berry (1997) established this

phenomenon when he acknowledged acculturation could occur to an individual’s group, yet could be observed differently between individuals within the group. Individual acculturation that is experienced differently by each individual occurs in three complex phases. These phases include behavioural shift, culture learning, and social skills acquisition with elements of culture shedding or deculturation. This culture shedding is where the unlearning of one’s previous life occurs as it is no longer required and internal transformation transpires (Kim, 2001). Nevertheless, individuals may experience culture conflict, where new behaviours are in opposition with the individual. This cultural conflict produces challenges and leads to

acculturative stress also known as ‘culture shock’ (Berry, 1997; Muecke, Lenthall, Lindeman, & Lindeman, 2011). Thompson et al. (2002, p. 682) outlines the process of migration and resettlement by identifying

three broad transitions that are mediated by age and gender: (i) changes in bonding and the reconstruction of social networks, (ii)

extraction from one socioeconomic system and insertion into another, and (iii) the transition from one cultural system to another.

Each of the broad transition elements of migration and settlement are discussed in detail below.

4.7.1.1 Changes in bonding and the reconstruction of social networks Firstly, changes in bonding and the reconstruction of social networks occur as an individual migrates, as they are separated from their usual network of family,

friends and neighbours. It is superseded by the development of new social networks in the host society (Kuo & Tsai, 1986; Rogler, 1994; Thompson et al., 2002). The ability to successfully re-establish social networks and relationships in the host society with low-density heterogeneous networks can protect the mental health of immigrants, such as IMGs, as outlined previously (Atri et al., 2011). Additionally, similar CALD community support also remains beneficial; however, high-density networks within a CALD group can prove to be disadvantageous as they restrict the development of social interaction of the greater heterogeneous community (Kuo & Tsai, 1986; Rogler, 1994; Thompson et al., 2002). Nevertheless, migrants at times lack the confidence to negotiate social structures that are a dominant and

unfamiliar culture. They may make “a conscience choice not to negotiate a cultural structure that differs from their own due to issues of mistrust” (Maynard-Reid, 2005, p. 13).

4.7.1.2 Withdrawal from one socioeconomic system into another The second element of migrant transition involves the withdrawal from one socioeconomic system into another and leads to migrants ‘starting over.’ For example, as IMGs enter Australia, as migrants, sojourners or refugees, they often enter their occupation at a lower standing than previously experienced (Thompson et al., 2002; Vega & Rumbaut, 1991). In addition, limitations often occur due to discrimination and can discontinue the satisfaction of their role as a spouse, parent or provider (Thompson et al., 2002; Vega & Rumbaut, 1991).

4.7.1.3 Transition from one cultural system to another

The third and major element of the migration transition is moving into a society with different cultural beliefs and acquiring elements of the host culture. At times, this may be challenging as this transition may involve a shift in from a collectivist society. These societies are where family or community interests take priority or outweighs the interests of individuals. As such, when a migrant enters an

individualist society, such as Australia, often the interests are in contrast to the familiar collectivist view (McLaughlin & Braun, 1998; Thompson et al., 2002). 4.7.1.4 The conceptual framework for acculturation

Overall, Berry and Sam (1997), provide a framework that also highlights group and individual acculturation. Their framework demonstrates the features which existed prior to acculturation and also the features that occur during the acculturative process. Initially, a collective group can undergo changes such as political, economic changes and even social structures of the group can change. In addition, these changes can also occur at the individual level. These changes occur under the guise of behavioural shifts, acculturative stress and psychopathology (problems, crises and mental health issues) which lead to ultimate adaptation of the individual, as shown in Figure 4.3.

Figure 4.3: A conceptual framework for acculturation research

Source: Berry (1997). Adapted with permission.

Acculturation experience Life Events Appraisal of experience Stressors Immediate effects Stress Strategies used Coping Long term outcomes Adaptation

Group level Individual-level variables

Society of Origin

 Political context  Economic situation  Demographic factors

Moderating factors existing prior to acculturation

 Age, Gender, Education, Pre-acculturation  Status, Migration motivation, Expectations  Cultural distance (Language, Religion etc.)  Personality (Locus of control, Flexibly)

Group acculturation  Physical  Biological  Economic  Social  Cultural Society of settlement  Attitudes - MC Ideology - Ethnic Attitudes  Social support - Larger society - Ethnic society

Moderating factors during acculturation

 Phase (length of time)

 Acculturation strategies: Attitude and behaviours  Coping: Strategies and resources

 Social support

There is an understandable flow within the framework; however, the nature of the flow is decidedly variable between individuals. It is dependent upon many factors within the group, individual factors pre-acculturation and during the acculturative process. For example, sub-groups within the specific CALD may face differing degrees or levels of challenges throughout the acculturation process. Another example may be younger migrants experience fewer acculturation challenges, when compared to older migrants from the same CALD (Schwartz et al., 2010). These overarching factors and the numerous variables impact the acculturation process. It is not a ‘one size fits all’ process (Schwartz et al., 2010). The factors and variables cannot be ignored when researching and understanding the acculturation of individuals or groups (Berry, 1997; Berry & Sam, 1997).