La materia (recursos, materias primas e insumos)

Krashen (1987) maintains that second, like first, language acquisition, is determined by innate principles of linguistic knowledge. He argues that we acquire rules of language in a predictable way; though acquirers are not aware of the acquisition process, they are aware that they are using the language for communication. For Krashen, spontaneous meaningful productions displayed by second language learners can be initiated when ESL learners are involved in meaningful interactions. Krashen (1987) formulated different hypotheses in his study of second language acquisition: the natural order hypothesis, monitor hypothesis, affective filter hypothesis and input hypothesis.

The natural order hypothesis emphasizes that there are similarities in the acquisition of grammatical structures for both first and second and language, and that the

acquisition of both is predictable. Krashen’s (1987: 12) hypothesis describes second

language acquisition as a way in which learners develop two types of distinct grammatical knowledge about a second language: ‘acquired second language knowledge’, which develops subconsciously as a result of exposure to the second language, and ‘learned second language knowledge’, which second language

learners acquire consciously either through learning about the language from textbooks, teachers or through forming their own ‘rules of thumb’.

The monitor hypothesis focuses on consciously learned knowledge of the second language which can be used by learners to monitor the output, initiated by the acquired system, in order to check for discrepancies and correct the output where such discrepancies are found. Krashen argues that a consciously learned language rule cannot enable one to produce the target item accurately; in one’s own output, in real-time communication, but rather that it contributes as a conscious monitor. This implies that formal rules, or conscious language learning, play a limited role in second language performance. A second language performer needs to have

sufficient practice in language use. The performer must also focus on language form or think about accuracy in language use (Krashen, 1987: 16). This hypothesis seems to be aligned with some aspects of the communicative approach advocated by

researchers such as Canale and Swain (1980).

The affective filter hypothesis was a concept proposed by Dulay and Burt (1977) which relates success in second language acquisition to motivation, self-confidence

system that subconsciously screens incoming language based on ‘affect’, the learners’ motives, needs, attitudes, and emotional status. These affective variables

tend to show stronger relationships to second language achievement when communicative-type tests are used, tests that tap the acquired rather than the learned system (Krashen, 1987: 31). Second language learners with less interest towards acquiring a second language will not only seek less input, but will also have a high affective filter such that even if they understand the message, the input will not reach that part of the brain responsible for language acquisition. Those with attitudes more conducive to second language acquisition will seek more input, be open to the input, and show lower filter.

The input hypothesis is the kind of second language exposure which will optimally allow learners’ acquired knowledge to develop. Krashen (1985, 1987) argues that

second language, in general, is best taught by exposing learners to a large amount of comprehensible input and mediation of parents and teachers without any

deliberate explanation, practice, or correction of language features. In order for second language learners to develop fluency in speaking the target language, they need exposure to comprehensible input of grammatical structures as well.

Interaction hypothesis (Long & Porter, 1985; Long, 1996) is another research-based model of implicit grammar that states that the main means of acquisition of new language features is through the negotiation of meaning that takes place during the interaction between the learner and another advanced speaker of the target

language. Long (1996) sees the importance of interaction and learner output, as more enhancing of language acquisition than Krashen’s comprehensible input. On

the other hand, Swain (1995) came up with the output hypothesis that suggests that output within communicative interaction provides opportunities for learners to

become aware of what they do not know, and how to express and to check

hypotheses. Swain argues that with little, or no, output even comprehensible input will not improve learners’ basic grammatical errors.

Researchers of second language acquisition such as Kim and Krashen (1997) summarise the process as being one of communicative language acquisition. Second language acquisition theories have implications for how second language should be taught. These theories emphasise factors and processes which influence second language acquisition. Amongst these are: socio-cultural backgrounds; relationships; motivation and attitudes; time available for learning and teaching; the influence of parents and teachers; and the general comprehensible input available for learning the target language.

Research findings on language proficiency in a second language can, theoretically, be classified into proficiency in different skills: reading, writing, speaking and

listening (Grabe, 1991; Kim and Krashen, 1997). This means that in order to

ascertain the extent to which students are proficient in a second language, one must measure their proficiency in reading, writing, speaking and listening skills.

Research findings of second language development also present varied insights about reform in the development of the English curriculum which show links with the vocational education sector. Studying English has the potential to enable the

students to function effectively in respective environments, to be more competitive in the job market and to move up the career ladder. Proficiency in English provides access to undergraduate and postgraduate courses and to work-related professional development courses whilst it empowers prominent employees to function better in

NCV is therefore. That is followed by a discussion of why English matters. That includes a discussion about English for specific purposes, English for academic

purposes, as well as English and the workplace

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