La nulidad absoluta

A second reason why World Vision is suitable for study is the size and scope of the World Vision Partnership. The Partnership recorded US$ 2.79 billion in revenue for its 2011 fiscal year.11 According to Carbonnier, it has the largest budget among humanitarian and

development aid NGOs.12 It is important to understand the way in which World Vision’s theological emphases contribute to its development work when it is managing a vast global cash flow raised overwhelmingly by public donation. In most places, World Vision’s work receives strong financial supported from Christian churches. This stakeholder group also has a particular interest in knowing how World Vision’s theological beliefs and practices

contribute to the development of the communities that it is trying to help.

World Vision’s theological motifs will be necessarily nuanced for local contexts, including in their application to particular development needs. The scale of World Vision necessarily means that it operates in many diverse developing country settings. Looking at these local differences will make the research richer and more valuable. It is noted that because World Vision uses standard methodologies and systems at an operational level, this will facilitate the task of comparison.

Countries from the following diverse contexts are considered in this research: the Balkans, the Middle East, Eurasia and Africa. Cameos of these contexts have been prepared to

introduce the broader development context and World Vision’s work within it. The information is taken principally from World Vision evaluation reports and supporting interviews. These sources are able to provide a thumbnail sketch of the development landscape in each place.

11 _{WVI 2011, Accountability report p. 6.The WVI 2012 Accountabilty report lists Partnership revenue at $US}

2.67bn, p.14.

4.3.2.1 The Balkans

Albania

Albania is an ex-communist state, which was the site of a war of independence with Kosovo. The government of Albania was strongly atheistic during communist rule, when religious institutions were proscribed or actively repressed. Since the fall of communism, Albania has emerged as a pluralistic society with competing Christian (Orthodox), Islamic and secular influences.

Major development challenges include the rebuilding of national identity, regaining confidence in public institutions, corruption and ensuring harmonious relationships in a pluralistic environment. Albania suffers from high levels of unemployment, emigration of younger people in search of better opportunities, an increasing material focus with increased exposure to the West, an entrenched mentality of state dependency, a lack of hope, injustice (especially towards minorities), poor-quality education, and a wide range of social problems including substance abuse.

Bosnia and Herzegovina

Bosnia and Herzegovina is also an ex-Communist society that has a history of inter-ethnic and inter-religious conflict. There are a number of development challenges, which present themselves in a variety of ways. These include cynicism and disillusionment, a general economic malaise, emigration, loss of industrial production, growing unemployment and a lack of social services.

Many in this community have found it difficult to move on in a constructive way since the end of the civil war with Serbia, which lasted from 1992 to 1995 following the breakup of Yugoslavia. Issues to be faced include unresolved trauma, institutional neurosis, learned helplessness, declining levels of trust in others, rising crime rates, selfishness, lack of community spirit, paternal reliance on government, nostalgic beliefs about the past, rapid urbanisation (especially around Sarejevo), rising unemployment, youth alienation, social passivity, fatalism, corruption, HIV/AIDs, and alcoholism. Society in Bosnia and

Herzegovina reflects three main groupings: Muslim Bosniaks (44%), Orthodox Serbs (31%) and Catholic Croats (17%).

4.3.2.2 Middle East

Lebanon

Lebanon is another country used to war and civil conflict. Its system of government reflects entrenched sectarian groupings. There are wide disparities in wealth within Lebanese society,

which tends to reflect religious divisions. Poverty is widespread, and there is a sense of apprehension and uncertainty about the future. This is expressed in powerlessness and fear.

One challenge affecting development workers in this highly sectarian society is insularity and resistance to change due to religious traditions. There are also tensions along inter-ethnic and inter-religious divides, and the problem of post-war displacement and depression. There is a pressing need for psychosocial care for long-term displaced peoples. Communities report a lack of basic needs, minimal government services, lack of income, unemployment,

seasonality of work, and dependence on remittances from relatives. There is a handout mentality, dependence on charity, and the need for constructive youth engagement.

4.3.2.3 Eurasia

Armenia

Armenia is an ex-communist state that suffered a major blow to its religious heritage during the Stalinist purges. Prior to the Soviet era, it had been invaded by a succession of empires – Greeks, Romans, Persians, Byzantines, Mongols, Arabs, Ottoman Turks and Russians. It evolved from being a powerful empire itself in the first century to being the smallest of the former Soviet republics. The Hamidian genocide killed up to 300,000 in the 1890s, and the Armenian Genocide of 1915–1917 resulted in 600,000 to 1.5 million deaths. More recently, conflict with Azerbaijan over the status of the Karabakh region saw 30,000 killed and up to 1 million displaced. This illustrates a long history of conflict and a suspicion of outside

influences. Historically, the dominant Armenian Apostolic Church has been a source of national cohesion and identity, dating its origins to 301 AD.

Key development issues include high unemployment, the loss of industrial support provided by the Soviet regime and an exodus of people for economic reasons. The diaspora community is more than twice the size of the domestic population. Leaders complain of a loss of moral fabric within society, disillusionment, corruption, passivity and reliance on charity. World Vision started working in Armenia in 1988 after a devastating earthquake and has continued to provide development assistance. Armenia achieved formal independence from the Soviet Union in 1991. HIV and AIDS is a significant issue, partly because of the large number of workers living outside the country. There are significant enclaves of Muslims in some parts of Armenia.

Georgia

Georgia is an ex-communist state that was formerly part of the Soviet Union. In a similar way to Armenia, it has a dominant state church, the Georgian Orthodox Church (GOC), which

traces its history to 327AD. This church has been a powerful source of national identity, with some claiming that to be Georgian is to be Georgian Orthodox.13 _{The dark side of this}

dominance is the marginalisation of other religious groups (including smaller Christian denominations, regarded as ‘sects’) and strongly patriarchal influences. There is a particular need for religious tolerance in the Samtskhe-Javakheti region, where there have been

sporadic conflicts.

The agricultural sector in Georgia is inefficient, and there have been periodic food security issues. Industry has suffered from the loss of support it enjoyed in Soviet times, and many factories lie empty and decaying. There is a widespread sense of hopelessness and

depression. Poverty is experienced through unemployment and the lack of any income- generating opportunities. The government suffers from corruption, and social services are unreliable and inadequate to meet even basic needs. Against this malaise, the challenge of positive youth engagement is pressing.

Georgia is no stranger to conflicts, and there have been recurring civil conflicts in the Ingushetia region. Fighting also erupted in the early 1990s in the autonomous areas of South Ossetia and Abkhazia, displacing many people within Georgia. Sporadic incursions and mistrust have prevented the repatriation of up to 300,000, who live in camps for internally displaced persons.

4.3.2.4 African settings

Tanzania

World Vision has an extensive program in Tanzania that responds to a wide range of

development issues. These include primary health care and the prevention of HIV and AIDS, improved agricultural practices, food security, and water and sanitation.

Some ADPs, like the one in Katero, operate in mixed Christian and Muslim communities. There is also a strong history of animistic14 beliefs and practices in some communities, including harmful practices and so-called witchcraft killings. World Vision’s programs focus on child rights, vulnerable children, women and children’s participation, inter-religious and inter-tribal harmony, HIV and AIDS, civic participation, business initiatives for women, development of small enterprises, and combatting early pregnancy and marriage. A clear difference from most other settings is the strong emphasis on resisting harmful animistic                                                                                                                          

13 _{Goode, A 2010a, World Vision evaluation report: World Vision Georgia, Christian Commitments}

Programme, June, p.9.This was a consistent comment heard by the Georgia evaluation team.

14  _{In this thesis, the term ‘animism’ is used rather than African Traditional Religion (‘ATR’) for reasons}

practices and the more overtly ‘spiritualised’ nature of many activities. The line between church and development agency, evangelism and civic formation, has sometimes been hard to draw.

Rwanda

Rwanda was the focus of sustained missionary endeavour for more than a century. About 94% of Rwandans self-identify as Christian, although beliefs can be shallow and ill formed. Uncomfortable questions have been raised about the nature of Christian belief in Rwanda in view of the widespread genocide of 1994.

World Vision commenced work in Rwanda in response to the genocide and has remained there in a development capacity. Prominent development themes are food security, economic development, primary health (including the impact of HIV and AIDS and access to clean water), sustainable agriculture, child rights, and the need for greater educational opportunities especially for girls. Overshadowing everything else, however, are the internal divisions within Rwandan society which reached their nadir in 1994. This explains the consistent focus on healing, peace-building and reconciliation in much of World Vision’s Rwanda

programming.

Senegal

Senegal is predominantly a moderate Sunni Muslim country, which has been influenced by Sufi mysticism. Spiritual beliefs are inseparable from daily life and are prioritised by the community. It is a very open religious context. Of the total population, 98% say that ‘religion is very important in their lives’15 and 58% believe that ‘sacrifices to spirits or ancestors can protect them from bad things happening.’ There are many animistic beliefs and practices in Senegal.

An historic focus of World Vision’s work has been food security and access to clean water, and it has been reported that needs in these areas are now declining. Primary health, including HIV and AIDS and sanitation, remain a priority. There is an emerging emphasis on quality education, life skills and child rights. Many children are educated in a very limited way in Koranic schools or Daaras (a kind of madrassa) where only Arabic is taught. A related phenomenon is the ill-treatment of talibé, children who are exploited and forced to beg. There are also animistic beliefs and rituals, and an unhelpful reliance on traditional healers. Some projects have been aimed at preventing harmful traditional practices –                                                                                                                          

15 _{PEW Forum on Religion and Public Life 2009, ‘American views on religion, politics, and public policy’,}

online at http://pewforum.org/. This data shows a remarkable majority of people in African countries who state ‘religion is very important to me’.

specifically female genital mutilation, early marriage and harsher forms of corporal punishment.

Other development concerns include people migrating to Dakar, youth engagement, the moral formation of young people and increased inter-faith understanding. There is a general concern about the rise of radical Islam in the region.

In summary, World Vision offers a diverse range of contexts in which to explore how theological beliefs and practices inform its development work. The eight contexts described represent a mixture of countries which identify as Christian (Rwanda, Georgia, Armenia), mixed religious settings (Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Lebanon, Tanzania) and strongly non-Christian (Senegal). Four countries were ex-communist (Albania, Bosnia and

Herzegovina, Armenia, Georgia), and three had experienced genocides (Bosnia and

Herzegovina, Armenia, Rwanda). Most had experienced wars or major internal civil conflicts in the last 30 years, the exceptions being Tanzania and Senegal. Some offices employed all, or virtually all, Christian staff (Armenia, Georgia, Lebanon, Rwanda, Tanzania) and the remainder a mixture. Senegal had a majority of Muslim staff.