2.1 MARCO TEÓRICO
2.1.3 LA POLÍTICA ARANCELARIA ADOPTADA A PARTIR DE LA
ɜA lot of emissions to water in the Rhine West river basin ɜLow emission intensity in Rhine West and Meuse
3.1
Water use
Water plays a key role in the Dutch economy. Water is abstracted from the environment and can be used as a direct input in production processes, for instance for cooling purposes. The water supply industry abstracts a large amount of water to produce tap water of drinking water quality that is subsequently used by industries and households. Depending on its source, water can be distinguished into surface water, groundwater, supplied tap water and ‘supplied other kinds of water’1). Given the importance of water for society, policies are in place to reduce water pollution and protect ground and surface water bodies. The water accounts provide information on water abstraction, water supply and use by different industries and households. Integrating water data with economic information makes it possible to monitor water conservation policies.
The methodology for compiling the water accounts is described in the report Dutch water flow accounts (Graveland, 2006). The data of the water accounts can be found on StatLine, the electronic database of Statistics Netherlands.
Abstraction of ground and surface water by the Dutch economy increased in 2009
The total abstraction of groundwater by the Dutch economy in 2009 amounted to 1037 million m3, which is an increase of 4 percent compared to 2008. This is primarily caused by the
increased demand from agriculture due to dry conditions in spring and summer and the need for extra irrigation as a result. Abstraction from surface water amounted to 14.2 billion m3
in 2009, an increase of 7 percent compared to 2008. This is to a large extent caused by an increase in demand by the electricity supply companies. Also the chemical industry showed an increase of 18 percent in surface water use, returning to a level of abstraction similar to the period 2005–2007.
Household use of tap water per capita continues to decline
In 2009 around 7.2 percent of the water abstracted from ground and surface water was turned into tap water as supplied by the water supply industry. Total tap water use in 2010 amounted to 1.1 billion m3. Households account for nearly two thirds (66 percent) of overall tap water
use in the Netherlands2). Since 1990, the total annual amount of water used by households increased by only a half percent, despite population growth. Through efficiency measures such as water saving toilets and shower heads as well as new and improved household appliances such as dishwashers and washing machines, household water use per capita has been reduced from 47.9 m3 in 1990 to 43.2 m3 in 2010. This is a decrease of 10 percent in twenty years.
1) ‘Other water’ is water of different, superior or inferior quality compared to tap water. One can think of unfiltered and filtered water, or distilled and
demineralised water. This water is produced by water companies and delivered to other companies particularly in the chemical industry. This category of ‘other water’ on average compares to 6–7 percent of the total use of tap water (VEWIN, 2011B). The delivery of ‘other water’ by the water companies is excluded from tap water.
2) Due to a break in the data in 2007, as a result of a shift from business use to residential use, the figures provided here for households and industries
Daily tap water use per household has dropped by 16 percent from 322 litres in 1990 to 266 litres in 2010, which equals 97 m3 per year. This drop can be explained by the strong increase in the
number of households. This is due to the smaller size of the average household, partly due to the increased number of one-person households. In years with hot and dry summers, as was the case in 2003 and 2006, water use is usually a few percent above average as more water is used for showering and watering the gardens.
3.1.1 Development of tap water use by households, size of population and number of households Index (1990=100)
Source: VEWIN, 2010; 2011A, 2011B; Statistics Netherlands 2011. 125 120 115 110 105 100 95 90 85 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Tapwateruse households Population Number of households Water use per capita
Tap water use by industries stable
Industries have progressively used less tap water since 1990, but from 2005 onwards the water use is more or less stable. In 2010 tap water use by businesses decreased by 0.4 percent. The chemical industry, food and beverage manufacturers and agriculture are extensive users of tap water. In addition, oil-refineries, and the health and social welfare sectors use significant amounts as well.
3.1.2 Volume change GDP, employment and tap water used for production index (1990=100)
Source: VEWIN, 2010; 2011A; 2011B; Statistics Netherlands 2011.
1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Tap water use by industry Employment GDP 160 150 140 130 120 110 100 90 80 70
Water in livestock production predominantly used for drinking purposes
Agriculture and horticulture have an average 5 percent share in the total amount of tap water used in the Netherlands, which shows a slight downward trend. However, there is an evidential influence of the weather in warm and dry years, when use is generally higher. A major category of tap water use in agriculture is drinking by cattle and other livestock. As figure 3.1.3 shows, this covers on average over 70 percent of the tap water used in livestock production. One of the main causes of the reduction in tap water use is therefore the smaller herd. In 2009, 14 percent less tap water was required for drinking by cattle compared with 2001. Switching from tap water to ground water and/or surface water for drinking by livestock offers an opportunity to further reduce tap water use in livestock production. On the other hand, the constant quality of tap water is valuable for livestock.
3.1.3 Water used in livestock production
million m3
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Ground- and surface water to water livestock Ground- and surface water for other purposes Tap water for livestock drinking Tap water for other purposes
120 100 80 60 40 20 0
Besides tap water, livestock also drink ground and surface water. In the livestock sector close to two-thirds of ground- and surface water abstracted was used for drinking in the period 2001 to 2009 (Meer, van der R, and H. van der Veen (2011); LEI, 2011; Veen, van der, et al. 2010). The remaining use of ground and surface water is mainly for irrigation of crops such as (green) maize and pastures. In agriculture in general, groundwater is mainly used for irrigation and for watering livestock. In 2009 agriculture had an 8 percent share in total groundwater abstraction. Crops in the Netherlands are predominantly grown under rain-fed conditions.
Tap water use intensity slightly increased
Water use intensity for an industry can be defined as the use of water in litres divided by its value added.3) Figure 3.1.4 shows the water use intensities of tap water for selected industries for the years 2003 and 2009. On average, nearly one litre of tap water is used for every euro of value added generated by the Dutch economy. This water use intensity decreased from 1.04 litres in 2003 to 0.88 litres in 2009. Compared to 2008, however, the intensity slightly increased. The contraction of the economy was not accompanied by a corresponding reduction of water use.
The manufacturing of basic metals has the highest water use intensity rate for tap water, followed by the manufacturing of petroleum products, cokes, and nuclear fuel, other mining, and livestock. The industries with the highest use intensity rates use 13 to 19 times more water to earn a euro than the average level for the Dutch economy. As depicted in Figure 3.1.4 the water use intensity for tap water in 2009 was less than in 2003 for most sectors, with the exception of the electricity sector and other mining industry. The electricity sector more than tripled its use of tap water. This can be explained by the establishment of a new plant for steam
production in a combined heat and power (CHP) plant. This plant generates both electricity and steam, and for the latter it makes use of tap water. The steam is produced for external parties.
3.1.4 Industries with the highest use intensities for tap water
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Total of Dutch economy Manufacture of basic metals Manufacture of petroleum products; cokes, and nuclear fuel Other mining Livestock Sewage and refuse disposal services Manufacture of food products, beverages and tobacco Manufacture of basic pharmaceutical products and pharmaceutical preparations Manufacture of basic chemicals, chemical products, and man-made fibres Other agriculture Manufacture of rubber and plastics products Electricity, gas, steam and air conditioning supply Horticulture Manufacture of paper and paper products Manufacture of other non-metallic mineral products Arable farming
litre / euro value added
2009 2003
The largest reductions were achieved by horticulture (–46 percent), and the pharmaceutical industry (–43 percent). Tap water-intensive industries, like the manufacture of basic metals (–4 percent), manufacture of petroleum products (–15 percent), and livestock (–16 percent) also showed significant reductions in tap water use intensity rates.
Regional water use
There is increasing interest in obtaining regional data on water use and abstraction, in particular according to river basins4). Such data is relevant for analysis for and reporting to the Water Framework Directive. The methodology for compiling regional water abstraction and use is described in a special report for Eurostat Water abstraction and –use at River Basin Level
(Baas and Graveland, 2011). It should be noted that the data presented in this section refer to 2008 and have not been disaggregated to NACE rev2.
4) The Netherlands is divided into 4 river basins: Ems, Meuse, Scheldt and Rhine. The Rhine basin is divided into 4 sub-basins: Rhine West, Rhine North,
Fresh water abstraction concentrated in Rhine West and Meuse
Table 3.1.5 demonstrates that abstraction of surface water is largest in the Rhine-West (sub-) river basin, which is responsible for 46 percent of total abstraction. The second largest user is the Meuse area with 40 percent. Most power plants are located in these (sub-) river basins, as well as major industries. In the Rhine-West, electricity supply is responsible for 50 percent, while the second largest user, chemical industry together with refineries, uses 30 percent. Besides the amounts presented in table 3.1.5, it must be mentioned that in regions like Rhine-West, Scheldt and Ems also significant amounts of (salt) marine water are used by power plants and by major industrial sites.