LA REFORMA DE LAS ADMINISTRACIONES PÚBLICAS

Tagbilaran

Integrated water resource management (IWRM) is the dominant approach to water resource management at present, as discussed in Chapter 3, Section 3.2. An important facet of IWRM is the identification of the watershed unit as the most appropriate level at which to undertake water management and research (Bandaragoda, 2000; Calder, 1999; Molden, 1997; UNCSD, 1997).56

In the Philippines, the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) defines a watershed as,

… the area of land from which rainwater can drain, as surface runoff, via a specific stream or river system to a common outlet point which may be a dam, irrigation system or municipal/urban water supply off take point, or where the stream/river discharges into a larger river, lake or the sea (FMB- DENR, 1998).

In addition, IWRM recognises the importance of conjunctive uses and management of water resources incorporating groundwater resources along with surface water since the two systems interact and are linked (Jehangir and Horinkova, 2002; Shah, Molden, Sakthivadivel and Seckler, 2000).

Despite recent shifts in water resource management towards approaches that integrate hydrological, social, economic and political systems, groundwater remains a problematic resource to manage because of the invisibility of groundwater processes and uncertainty surrounding water quality and quantity. Moreover, the potential for water quality degradation is high in karst environments, as is the risk of depleting groundwater stocks if information concerning quantity is unreliable. In many countries including the Philippines, there is a lack of data and information concerning the store of groundwater resources or the rates and location of groundwater withdrawals (Burke, et al., 1999; Froukh, 2002). Furthermore, while the management of surface water has been subject to comprehensive interrogation in terms of defining units of development and management groundwater management has tended to occur in a more ad hoc manner with less than perfect information on aquifer characteristics.

In Tagbilaran, few provisions for the management of groundwater resources have been made. This is mostly because of problems with institutional capacity across all levels of governance in the Philippines. The Philippines exhibits a high degree of sectoral fragmentation in the management and protection of water resources.57

In addition, strategies for water resource management in the Philippines tend to focus on surface water and watershed

56

See also Bandaragoda (2000), Estrada and Posner (2001), Keller, Keller and Seckler (1996), Molden (1997), Perry (1996) and Park (1997) for explanations of watersheds, basins, and catchments.

57

Institutional fragmentation in the context of water resources in the Philippines is discussed further in Chapter 6, Section 6.1.

management, and have been primarily concerned with protecting, maintaining or improving water supply and regulating forest activities and land use.

Water management policies are largely derived at the national level and guide practice and management at the sub-national level. At the national level, the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) is the primary government agency responsible for the conservation, management, development and proper use of natural and environmental resources in the Philippines, including those in reservations, watershed areas and lands of the public domain. DENR is also responsible for the licensing and regulation of the utilisation of natural resources as per PD705RevisedForestryCodeofthePhilippines1975 (hereafter referred to as PD 705 1975) (Republic of the Philippines, 1975c; World Bank, 2000). DENR’s mandate is premised on the classification of land as initially derived through the 1987 Constitution, which classified land of the public domain as agricultural, forest or timber, mineral lands, and national parks of which only agricultural lands are alienable. PD 7051975 further classifies land and has been adopted as the land classification for the country. The two major classifications are Certified Alienable and Disposable Land and Forestlands, which comprise the following: Unclassified, Fish Ponds, Forest Reserves, Civil Reservations, Timberland, Military and Naval Reservations, and National Parks/Game Refuge and Bird Sanctuary/Wilderness Area (NEDA, 2002). The area of land falling under each of these categories is presented in Table 4.2 for both the Philippines as a whole as well as the Province of Bohol. Land with a slope in excess of 18 percent is classified as forest or timberlands and falls under the mandate of DENR. Other lands which are needed for forest purposes include areas needed for national parks, national historical sites, game refuges and wildlife sanctuaries, forest station sites, along with areas proclaimed by the president.

Land Classification Area (hectares), All of Philippines(a)

Area (hectares) Bohol(b)

Certified Alienable and Disposable - Total 14,145,078 310,455 Forestlandsi

– Total (comprising the following): 15,854,922 101,271

Unclassified 1,089,118 --

Established Forest Reserve 3,272,912 19,410

Established timberland 10,227,847 78,454

Classified National Park/Game Refuge and Bird

Sanctuary/Wilderness Area 893,221

--

Military and Naval Reservation 130,330 --

Civil Reservation 165,946 --

Fish Pond 75,548 3,407

TOTAL AREA 30,000,00058 _411,726

Table 4.2: Land classifications and areas in the Philippines and Bohol i

The total area for Forestlands comprises the sub-classifications shown in this

table. Source: (a)

(FMB-DENR, 2003a); (b)

FMB-DENR (2003b).

To illustrate the significance given to watersheds in the Philippines, approximately 70 percent of the country is officially considered as watershed areas, including 421 principal and 18 major river basins (NEDA, 2002). The rate and degree of degradation of the country’s watersheds is extensive. Most notable is soil erosion which is estimated as affecting between 60-80 percent of the country’s total land area (FMB-DENR, 1998). For this reason, watersheds are identified as important areas subject to conservation and protection by virtue of PD 705 1975, which establishes criteria for determining critical watersheds, presidential proclamations as watershed/forest reserves, and as provided under RA 7586 National Integrated Protected AreasSystem (NIPAS) 1992 (Republic of the Philippines, 1992b).59

In response to watershed degradation throughout the country, DENR formally institutionalised an IWRM approach to water resource management and is seeking to coordinate activities between offices involved in water resources management (DENR, 2002b). Watershed degradation has been attributed to a wide range of complex physical and socio-economic factors; therefore, an integrated water resource management is felt to be more appropriate and effective than a fragmented sectoral approach. At present, IWRM projects are fairly localised and there is a tendency to focus on promoting the use of the natural resources (soil, vegetation, fauna and water) within the watershed for economically productive purposes balanced with conservation (PCARRD, DOST, DENR, FMB, DA, UPLB, CFNR and FDC/ENFOR, 1999). Even so, this represents a positive shift towards viewing and managing watersheds in a more

58

As unlikely as it seems, the total land area under classification which is reported in FMB-

DENR’s (2003a) Land Classification: 1978-2003 is exactly 30,000,000 hectares.

59

In Bohol, three major watersheds in the interior of the province have been declared as protected areas; these are the Wahig-Inabanga (57,675 hectares), the Loboc Watershed (10,387 hectares) and the Duero Watershed (3,630 hectares) (Province of Bohol, 2004b).

holistic manner. To this end, there is a desire to have in place river basin institutions to facilitate resource planning and management throughout the country.

As demonstrated above, the jurisdiction of DENR is largely confined to watersheds proclaimed as critical watersheds and watersheds located in areas with a slope in excess of 18 percent, and watersheds have been the primary focus for water management efforts. However, in the case of Tagbilaran, where slope is considerably less than 18 percent, the land above the aquifer – including recharge areas – is beyond the jurisdiction of DENR and instead is the responsibility of local government units. While groundwater is mentioned in DENR publications and has been inventoried, including within Tagbilaran and Bohol, and identified as an important source in the Philippines, management approaches that take into account the interconnectedness of groundwater and surface water, in particular the connectivity at points of recharge and discharge, is virtually non-existent. IWRM and a watershed approach in the Philippines, therefore, tend to focus more on surface water and watersheds rather than groundwater. Such an outcome is not restricted to the Philippines, and echoes Burke et al (1999:309): “it could be argued that water management has, in general, been more comfortable with dealing with surface water than groundwater.”

In Tagbilaran, there is growing recognition amongst those in local government of the significance of groundwater and the need to better understand the geology and processes present in order to better manage water resources (LG#1). In pursuing an integrated approach to water resource management which takes into account groundwater resources, Tagbilaran is a beneficiary of efforts driven at the Provincial Government level, as well as by NGOs, to increase management capacity of government staff, educate members of the community, and to improve information in order to reduce uncertainty.

Bohol is currently a partner to the “DILG-GTZ Water Program towards an Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) 2004 – 2006,” which is a bilateral project between the Government of the Philippines through the Water Supply and Sanitation Project Management Office, Department of Interior and Local Government (DILG) and German development consultancy organisation GTZ. The Bohol Integrated Water Resource Management Team was created by Executive Order No. 42 and is comprised of personnel representing agencies in the Provincial Government,60

DILG, LGUs and stakeholders and is based at the PPDO. The primary objective is to improve the living conditions of the rural population in selected areas in the Philippines by supporting the communities and local organisations to improve the quantity and quality of their water supply and sanitation; however, the positive externalities from this project will also benefit Tagbilaran since the development of technical skills and capacity at the

60

These agencies include Provincial Planning and Development Office, Provincial Health Office, Provincial General Services Office, Bohol Environmental Management Office, Provincial

provincial level can be transferred to overseeing water resource management in Tagbilaran (PG#5).

4.5

Summary

Despite the paradigmatic shift towards integrated water resource management and a focus on demand as well as supply management, groundwater remains a difficult resource to manage, particularly in a karst environment such as Tagbilaran in which there is a high degree of ecological uncertainty. In the absence of groundwater studies and a paucity of hydrological information specific to the city, reports which underpin planning decision contain assumptions and data gaps concerning inputs (recharge) and outputs (discharge and extraction). In the Philippines in general, there has been a tendency to focus on surface water and watershed management; however, for groundwater dependent cities with low-lying topography such as Tagbilaran, such an approach is inadequate. The tendency to focus attention on surface water is not unique to Tagbilaran or the Philippines, and reflects the difficulty of performing groundwater studies and understanding subsurface drainage patterns. In addition, because the majority of the processes occur underground, there is a tendency to be complacent about how activities above ground affect quantity and quality of the water below.

The implementation of planning and development policy in Tagbilaran, as guided by national mandates, is discussed in Chapter 6, Section 6.3. In the meantime, I continue in the following chapter to elucidate the local factors affecting water governance in Tagbilaran by presenting a snapshot of the social and economic characteristics of the city. The implications of Tagbilaran’s urbanisation are explored, with particular attention given to saltwater intrusion as a consequence of over-pumping to meet increased demand, groundwater contamination because of improper solid waste disposal and inadequate sewerage and sanitation, and urban expansion into recharge areas.