La visió del territori

Leakage of CO2 from a storage site is the main safety concern of GCS because of environmental hazards as well as nullification of the whole project purpose. A leakage of CO2 from deep ground layers can pollute and acidify shallower underground freshwater resources. Moreover, lowering the pH of freshwater can results in release of harmful metals in water [Little and Jackson, 2010]. Surface leakage have also environmental problem. Density of CO2 is higher than of air, so after leakage, it can accumulate in pits and depressions (CO2 density is 1.842 kg/m3 and air density is 1.205 kg/m3 _{at sea level and at 20° C). Adverse physiological effects can happen}

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for human at CO2 concentration of 3% and increasing it to 10% have fatal effects. For instance, due to volcanic activity, a sudden release of 100 kilotonnes of CO2 in Lake Nyos, in Cameroon, killed 1700 people [Wilson et al., 2003]. While 0.01 to 0.1% leakage values per year seem to meet CO2 storage objectives, the acceptable leakage value for environmental aspects and health safety depends on local conditions [Chow, 2003; Etheridge et al., 2005; White et al., 2005]. Thus, a long- term monitoring plan in all storage sites is required at the beginning of projects. The monitoring can be conducted at subsurface, on the surface, or above the surface. In the subsurface, well- pressure monitoring, geophysical seismic tests, and numerical simulation of CO2 migration can be used [Dodds et al., 2009; Zhang et al., 2013; Brown, 2014; Kaven et al., 2014]. On the surface, the concentration of the CO2 can be measured by gathering the sample of the air [Seto and McRae, 2011; United States Department of Energy National Energy and Laboratory Technology, 2012]. Above the surface, the remote sensing method can be applied to measure CO2 leakage directly or indirectly [Zahid et al., 2011; Verkerke et al., 2014]. While direct method is to measure CO2 leakage, indirect methods is to monitor the change of anomalies, surface deformation, and vegetative stress [Verkerke et al., 2014]. Thermal anomalies can occur when heated CO2 migrated from underground or a localized freezing happens due to rushing gases leakage [Verkerke et al., 2014]. Because of injection, a uniform swelling of surface corresponding to the injection rate in the region is expected. An inconsistent deformation or swelling rate could be a sign of leakage. Using interferometry, several maps of the storage site surface are prepared and compared each other to monitor surface deformation [Verkerke et al., 2014]. Vegetation stress is the quantifying environmental effects on a plant health. It includes any factors that could cause to death of plants like lack or too much coldness, heat, water, sunlight, fertilizer and so on. A plant under stress means it is subjected to non-ideal growing conditions. Mapping of vegetation stress may reveal

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leakage location precisely as the high amount of CO2 has negative effects on the plants growth [Verkerke et al., 2014].

Key criteria for safety, environment, and health related concerns of a geological storage site have been developed based on the laws [Seligsohn et al., 2010]. Details are as follows; (1) monitoring program should be designed and regulated for each site specifically because of site dependency of GCS projects. Also, monitoring plan should be continuously updated through reassessing of the site conditions to keep storage site safety due to dynamic behavior of the injected CO2 and reservoir; (2) data of reservoir conditions should be collected during CO2 injection and future expected behavior must be predict; (3) possible pathways of CO2 leakage including natural faults and drilled boreholes should be considered and a versatile risk assessment should be conducted; (4) the boundary of monitored area should not be limited to the injected CO2 plume. All the regions that undergo any change such as pressure increase in pore fluids must be continuously observed; (5) the frame work of site monitoring after completion of CO2 injection must determine responsibilities, the time of effectiveness of regulations, reaction to an accident or any leakage, and liability for reimbursement and fines; and (6) local and nationwide public engagement is crucial [Seligsohn et al., 2010].

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