Just as there have been various methods advanced to develop enduring teacher change so too are there variants in teacher research methodologies. Some of the alternatives offered in literature include in-service – teacher experimentation (Huberman, 1992), teacher-student collaboration (Thiessen, 1992), pre-service collaboration (Burbank & Kauchak, 2003), expert-practitioner co-learning agreements (Ruthven, 2005), action research within an interconnected model (Clarke & Hollingsworth, 2002), autonomy through pedagogical research (Castle, 2006), and knowledge creating schools and networks using action research (McIntyre, 2005). However, at the core of the variants is the teacher, in the classroom, researching their pedagogy.
A theme of interdependence between the needs of teachers and students and using students to assist in researching the classroom environment is presented by Thiessen (1992). In his model of Classroom-based Teacher Development (CBTD), he argues that teachers need to develop themselves because their practice is intrinsically connected with the classroom experiences that they share with their students. Thiessen suggests that the best form of professional development in the classroom is where the teachers and students engage in researching their environments together through a variety of activities including teaching teams, investigation clubs, and using video-tapes to view instruction and engaging in action research with the children. The rationale offered by Thiessen for his model is that it will ensure a continuity of change and improvement in a meaningful context. Teacher to teacher collaboration is seen by this writer as a useful adjunct to this teacher-student intervention model.
Having a critical friend who is able to provide advice, guidance and support is seen as crucial to teacher research efforts (Elliott, 1990; Ruthven, 2005; Salisbury et al., 1997). Elliott (1990) sees the critical friend as a facilitator, and at times director, of the teacher research but from within a ‘second order’ inquiry. This is
where there is another research study being conducted which ‘overarches’ the teacher directed study: considered to be a first order study. Most of the writing around critical friends suggests that the person acting in that role should be knowledgeable about research in general, and classroom research in particular but the idea of using peers as critical friends is also advanced by Roettger (2006) and Huberman (1992). Roettger believes that support for teachers is important and that peers can provide that support. Whilst Huberman would agree with that idea he suggests that the peers also need to be trying out similar ideas, but questions whether they would be able to ask critical questions?
Whilst teachers are examining their pedagogy, through research activities, their primary focus for the research must remain on the student (Castle, 2006; V. Robinson, 2003). According to Castle (2006), teachers are expected to always act in the best interests of students and they must reflect on whether those actions were appropriate in promoting learning and growth in their students. Robinson (2003) believes that teachers have an ethical and professional obligation to examine the consequences of their actions because all decisions in a classroom affect the students.
Teaching in the classroom does not generally happen in a philosophical vacuum and although many teachers might not be able to describe their pedagogical philosophy, their practice is generally based on underlying assumptions (V. Robinson, 2003). Teacher research, especially that relating to inclusive practice, must focus on an examination of these assumptions in order to determine how the assumptions might be directing their practice. For instance, where a teacher believes the problem with a child’s learning lies is important for how they might proceed in finding an instructional solution (T. Booth, personal communication, August 18, 2003).
An effective method of examining assumptions is to critically reflect on the data that results from classroom research (Carrington & Robinson, 2004; Elliott, 1990). Reflection, therefore, is an important focus in teacher research. Elliott considers that the reflection needs to focus equally on the processes that occurred in the
research. Carrington and Robinson (2004) used reflection in an action research framework to look back to what had happened and to plan forward to the next cycle of research. From a New Zealand perspective the early childhood centres of innovation also used reflection as a part of their research programme. As Meade comments, “reflection is a given for them, for they could not have embedded an innovation without lots of internal questioning, dialogue and debate.” (Meade, 2005, p.1) In an article on teacher change through reflection on data, Flecknoe (2005) considers that reflection is emancipatory in that it helps teachers remove barriers that had been hindering their pedagogical change. Generally these barriers are seen as being assumptions, prejudices and beliefs that teachers have, that guide their practice (Flecknoe, 2005).
Reflection, focus on the student, examination of underlying assumptions and the importance of a critical friend are all perceived as key focus elements of teacher research. However, the literature cautions that there are also some limitations in teacher research and some of these are now examined.
Sustainability of effort is a limitation of teacher research raised by several writers who have offered a variety of solutions. Several elements are considered essential to sustainability: skill development, an environment of support, time allowed for change to develop and embed, and a maintenance of focus unencumbered by competing demands (Elliott, 1990; Huberman, 1992; Poskitt & Taylor, 2007; V. Robinson, 2003; Roettger, 2006). If teachers are to become researchers of their own practice, then they must be taught the skills of research including aspects of reliability, validity and application as well as the mechanics of running a research project. By acquiring these skills teachers will achieve autonomy and be able to practise their skills according to their own determination (Castle, 2006). However, having environmental (i.e. surrounding the classroom) support is also viewed as important to improve sustainability. Whether this support comes from peers, administrators, or critical friends, amongst others, is not important but rather the support and guidance that the teacher receives are seen as crucial to sustainability (Huberman, 1992; Poskitt, 2005; V. Robinson, 2003). Maintaining focus free from distraction is also seen as important for sustainability. Classrooms are busy environments with competing demands some
of which are imposed from administrators and colleagues. Roettger advocates for a period of single focus so that all efforts can be directed to teacher change through the collection and analysis of classroom generated data (Roettger, 2006). Consequently, acquiring the skills needed to conduct research is a paramount activity in any school requiring teachers to act as researchers of their own practice. Perhaps the greatest challenge to the sustainability of teacher change is time. Poskitt and Taylor (2007) caution that changes to teacher practice take time, from two to five years, and that not only must time be given but also that the environment must be one that is supportive of the time taken to change.
One of the challenges of teacher research is that teachers may self-validate their existing pre-conceptions (Ruthven, 2005). Whilst critical reflection may assist with this difficulty the skill of reflecting critically on one’s own teaching takes time to learn and develop. The use of peers, critical friends and collaborative research are offered as ways to overcome self-validation. It is also important to maintain educational discourse in schools so that assumptions, philosophies and practices are constantly being reviewed.
Dissemination and validation of teacher research results may also be viewed as limitations (McIntyre, 2005; Ruthven, 2005). Results from single classroom research inform the teacher concerned but how does the educational community and the public at large become informed? There does not appear to be a consensus view as to whether this is a limitation and, if so, how to overcome it. The view as to whether it is a limitation appears to depend on how the writer views the purpose of teacher research. If the purpose is to enable the teacher to examine their practice and better meet the needs of their students, then dissemination and validation outside of that setting are not viewed as limitations. Ruthven suggests that cumulative knowledge building proceeds over time as education discourse takes its course, first amongst peers and then into the wider education community. However, to facilitate this knowledge building Ruthven advocates expert/practitioner partnerships. These partnerships allow for the dissemination of information within the local community through formal and informal networks, and into the wider community through academic activities
partnerships across a wide geographic base. Further, both practitioner and academic networks have unique cultures that govern the dissemination and creation of knowledge within them (see Meade, 2005 below)
McIntyre (2005) proposes a radical solution to this perceived limitation by suggesting that a network of knowledge creating schools be set up, which would then generate research which was collaboratively planned and have public knowledge generation as a goal. A similar process of ‘rippling’ out results of research is currently occurring with early childhood centres in New Zealand. The Centres of Innovation project (Meade, 2005) invites early childhood centres to conduct research within their centre (collaboratively with an external facilitator), and then ripple it out to the wider early childhood arena.
This examination of the core elements of teacher research and its limitations has suggested that teacher research should not be taken in isolation, regardless of its purpose, but that there be a form of collaboration whether that is with peers and administration within the school or with knowledgeable experts from outside such as academic educational researchers. Such collaborations are seen as providing rigour to the research, overcoming self-validation of existing pre-conceptions, assisting with implementation and sustainability, and helping with dissemination and validation.