3. La traducción publicitaria y sus particularidades
3.4. La publicidad en España y los países magrebíes
3.4.2. Las características de los textos publicitarios
The stress-strain plots of fibers subjected to tension indicate a linear relationship.
In contrast with steel, fibers do not exhibit a plastic region in the stress-strain relationship, and the fiber failure is brittle. Fibers are produced in different diameters of 4 to 10 μm from glass, carbon, aramid, and boron. Fibers can be produced with a wide range of physical and mechanical properties. For example, carbon fibers are manufactured with different:
1. Moduli (low, intermediate, high, and ultrahigh) 2. Strength (low and high)
3. Cross-sectional areas 4. Shapes
5. Twists
6. Number of fiber ends
Recognizing that properties of carbon fibers produced by different manufacturers can be different is very important. This is due to the subtle differences in precursor types and the carbon fiber processes. Different manufacturers may not have the same number of fibers or twists, which could affect the composite properties. Also, some manufacturers may have better processing techniques over other manufacturers [Mallick 1993]. General fiber properties of glass, carbon, aramid, and boron fibers are listed in Table 2.6.
REFERENCES
ACI 440.1R-03: Guide for the Design and Construction of Concrete Reinforced with FRP Bars, Detroit, Michigan: American Concrete Institute, 2003.
Agarwal, B. and Broutman, L., Analysis and Performance of Fiber Composites, New York:
John Wiley & Sons, 1990.
American Association of State Highways and Transportation Officials (AASHTO), Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges, 16th ed., Washington, DC, 1996.
TABLE 2.6a
Glass 2.48–2.62 217–700 10.2–13.0 2.9–5.0 4.8–5.0
Carbon PAN 1.76–1.96 220–820 33–70 –0.60 to –0.75 0.38–1.81 Carbon Pitch 2.0–2.15 275–350 55–110 –1.30 to –1.45 0.32–0.50
Aramid 1.39–1.47 435–525 10.1–19.0 –2.0 to –6.0 1.9–4.4
Boron 2.7 450 57 5 0.2
Source: Data from Mallick 1993, ACI 440.1R-03.
TABLE 2.6b
Specific Strength and Stiffness Properties of Fiber Reinforcements
Type of Fiber
E monofilament 2.54 0.092 500 5.43 10.5 1.14
12-end roving 2.54 0.092 372 4.04 10.5 1.14
S monofilament 2.48 0.090 665 7.39 12.4 1.38
12-end roving 2.48 0.090 550 6.17 12.4 1.38
Graphite
High strength 1.80 0.065 400 6.15 38 5.85
High modulus 1.94 0.070 300 4.29 55 7.86
Intermediate 1.74 0.063 360 5.71 27 4.29
* Strength/density.
† Elastic modulus/density.
Source: Adapted from Structural Plastics Design Manual, ASCE Manuals and Reports on Engi-neering Practice, No. 63, American Society of Civil Engineers, pp. 66, 1984.
American Concrete Institute (ACI), State-of-the-report on fiber-reinforced concrete, An Inter-national Symposium: Fiber-Reinforced Concrete, ACI Committee 544, Special Pub-lication, SP-44, Farmington Hills, MI, 1974.
American Concrete Institute (ACI), State-of-the-report on fiber-reinforced concrete, ACI Committee 544, Report ACI 544-1R-82, Concrete International: Design and Con-struction (re-approved 1986), Farmington Hills, MI, 1982.
American Concrete Institute (ACI), Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete (ACI 318-99) and Commentary (ACI 318R-99), ACI 318-99, Farmington Hills, MI, 1999.
American Concrete Institute (ACI), Cement and Concrete Technology, ACI 116R-78, ACI Committee 116, Farmington Hills, MI, 1978.
American Concrete Institute (ACI), Concrete International, ACI Committee 212, Chemical Admixtures, Farmington Hills, MI, 3, 5, 1981.
American Concrete Institute (ACI), Proc. ACI Journal, ACI Committee 223, Farmington Hills, MI, 73(6), 1976, 319–339.
American Society of Testing Materials (ASTM) C125-06 Standard Terminology Relating to Concrete and Concrete Aggregates, Philadelphia, 2006.
American Society of Testing Materials (ASTM) C150-05 Standard Specification for Portland Cement, Philadelphia, 2005.
American Society of Testing Materials (ASTM) C260-01 Standard Specification for Air-Entraining Admixtures for Concrete, Philadelphia, 2001.
American Society of Testing Materials (ASTM) C330-05 Standard Specification for Light-weight Aggregates for Structural Concrete, Philadelphia, 2005.
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) C 469-94, Test Method for Static Method of Elasticity and Poisson’s Ratio of Concrete in Compression, Philadelphia, 1994.
American Society of Testing Materials (ASTM) C494/C494M-05a Standard Specification for Chemical Admixtures for Concrete, Philadelphia, 2005.
American Society of Testing Materials (ASTM) C567-05 Standard Test Method for Deter-mining Density of Structural Lightweight Concrete, Philadelphia, 2005.
American Society of Testing Materials (ASTM) C595-05 Standard Specification for Blended Hydraulic Cements, Philadelphia, 2005.
Aziz, M.A., Paramsivam, P., and Lee, S.L., Concrete reinforced with natural fibers, in New Reinforced Concretes, R.N. Swamy (Ed.), Glasgow: Surrey University Press, 1984.
Balguru, P.N., and Shah, S.P. Alternative reinforcing materials for developing technology, Intl. J. Dev. Tech., 2, 1985, 87–105.
Balguru, P.N. and Shah, S.P., Fiber-Reinforced Cement Composites, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1992.
Beck, D.L., Hiltz A.A., and Knox, J.R., Experimental data of specific volume vs. temperature to determine Tg of polypropylene, Soc. Plast. Eng. Trans., March, 1963, 279.
Berglund, L.A., Thermoplastic resins, in Handbook of Composites, S.T. Peters (Ed.), New York: Chapman & Hall, 1998.
Brunauer, S. and Copeland, L.E., The chemistry of concrete, Scientific American, April 1964.
Bunsell, A.R., Fibre Reinforcements for Composite Materials, Amsterdam: Elsevier Science Publishers, 1988.
Canadian Society for Civil Engineers (CSCE), Advanced Composite Materials with Applica-tion to Bridges, Montreal, 1992.
Composites Institute of the Society of the Plastics Industry (CISPI), Introduction to Compos-ites, Washington, DC, 1992.
Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute (CRSI), Manual of Standard Practice, Chicago, 1994.
Cornish, E.H., Materials and the Designer, New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987.
Cossis, F.A. and Talbot, R.C., Polyester and vinyl ester resins, in Handbook of Composites, S.T. Peters (Ed.), New York: Chapman & Hall, 1998.
Davis, H.E., Troxell, G.E., and Wiskosil, C.T., The Testing and Inspection of Engineering Materials, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1964.
Dewprashad, B., and Eisenbraun, E.J. Fundamentals of epoxy formulation, J. Chem. Educ., 71, 4, April, 1994, 290–294.
Donnet, J.B. and Bansal, R.C., Carbon Fibers, New York: Marcel Dekker, 1984.
Ege, S., Organic Chemistry, 2nd ed., Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath & Co., 1989.
Gerig, J.T., Introductory Organic Chemistry, New York: Academic Press, 1974.
Gibson, R.F., Principles of Composite Material Mechanics, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1994.
Griffith, A.A., The phenomenon of rupture and flow in solids, Phil. Trans. Royal Soc., 221A, 1920, 163–198.
Gupta, R.K., Polymer and Composite Rheology, 2nd ed., New York: Marcel Dekker, 2000.
Gustafsson, C.G., Initiation of growth of fatigue damage in graphite/epoxy and graphite/PEEK laminates, Ph.D. dissertation, Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, 1988.
Hassoun, M.N., Design of Reinforced Concrete Structures, Boston: PWS Engineering, 1997.
International Conference of Building Officials (ICBO), Uniform Building Code-1997, Volume 2, Whittier, CA: 1997.
Jones, R.M., Mechanics of Composite Materials, New York: Hemisphere Publishing, 1975.
Kajorncheappunngam, S., The effect of environmental aging on durability of glass/epoxy composite, Dissertation submitted to the College of Engineering and Mineral Resources, EVU, 1999.
Kosmatka, S.H. and Panarese, W.C., Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures, 13th ed, Chicago: Portland Cement Association, 1992.
Lubin, G. (Ed.). Handbook of Composites, New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., 1982.
MacGregor, J.G., Reinforced Concrete: Mechanics and Materials, Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Prentice Hall, 1997.
Mallick, P.K., Fiber Reinforced Composite Materials: Manufacturing and Design, New York:
Marcel Dekker, 1993.
McConnel, V.P., Bridge column retrofit, High-Performance Composites, September/October, 1993, 62–64.
McConnel, V.P., Infrastructure update, High-Performance Composites, May/June, 1995, 21–25.
Mehta, P.K., Concrete: Structure, Properties, and Materials, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pren-tice-Hall, 1986.
Mirza, S.A., Hatzinkolas, M., and MacGregor, J.G., Statistical description of strength of concrete, Proc. ASCE J. Struct. Div., 105, ST6, June, 1979.
Modern Plastics Encyclopedia, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1975.
Monte, Handbook of Fillers and Reinforcements, 1978.
Morgan, R.J. and Allred, R.E., Aramid Fiber Reinforcements, Reference Book for Composites Technology, Vol. 1, Lee, S.M., ed., Lancaster, PA: Technomic Pub. Co., 1989.
Munley, E., FHWA structures research program: fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) composite materials, Summary of Remarks for 10th ASM/ESD Advanced Composite Conference and Exposition, Dearborn, MI, November 8, 1994.
Nielsen, E.L. and Landel, R.F., Mechanical Properties of Polymers and Composites, 2nd ed., New York: Marcel Dekker, 1994.
Pauw, A., Static modulus of elasticity of concrete as affected by density, Proc. ACI Journal, 57, 6, December, 1960, 679–687.
Penn, L.S. and Wang, H., Epoxy resins, in Handbook of Composites, S.T. Peters (Ed.), New York: Chapman & Hall, 1998.
Schwartz, M., Composites Materials Handbook, 2nd ed., New York: McGraw-Hill Co., 1992.
Shimp, D.A., Specialty matrix resins, in Handbook of Composites, S.T. Peters (Ed.), New York: Chapman & Hall, 1998.
Smith, W.F., Principles of Material Science and Engineering, 2nd ed., New York: McGraw-Hill, 1990.
Structural Plastics Design Manual, ASCE Manuals and Reports on Engineering Practice, No.
63, American Society of Civil Engineers, pp. 66, 1984.
Tullo, A.H., Plastics additives’ steady evolution, C & EN, December 2000, 21–31.
Vijay, P.V., GangaRao, H.V.S., and Bargo, J.M., Mechanical Characterization of Recycled Thermoplastic Polymers for Infrastructure Applications, ACMBS-3, Ottawa, Canada, pp. 55–60, Aug., 2000.
63