2.3.1.ȱPlato’sȱMythȱofȱErȱ(370’sȱB.C.E.)ȱ ȱ
InȱtheȱlastȱbookȱofȱhisȱRepublic,ȱPlatoȱrecountsȱtheȱmythȱofȱEr,64ȱtheȱstoryȱ ofȱaȱmanȱwhoȱdiedȱonȱtheȱbattlefield,ȱbutȱafterȱaȱvisionȱofȱtheȱsoul’sȱfateȱ afterȱdeath,ȱisȱsentȱbackȱtoȱhisȱbodyȱandȱrevivesȱonȱhisȱfuneralȱpyre.ȱȱToȱ whatȱ degreeȱ Platoȱ utilizesȱ anȱ existingȱ mythȱ orȱ popularȱ beliefȱ isȱ imȬ possibleȱtoȱknow.65ȱ
1.ȱTheȱmythȱcontainsȱthreeȱsections.ȱTheȱfirstȱmovementȱofȱtheȱstoryȱ describesȱtheȱimmediateȱfateȱofȱsoulsȱafterȱtheirȱdeathȱ(614c–616b).ȱTheȱ wickedȱ areȱ sentȱ intoȱ aȱ holeȱ inȱ theȱ earthȱ toȱ sufferȱ tenfoldȱ forȱ theirȱ wrongs.ȱTheȱmostȱegregiousȱsinnersȱneverȱleaveȱthisȱtorment.ȱTheȱjust,ȱ however,ȱ enterȱ aȱ portalȱ intoȱ theȱ heavensȱ whereȱ theyȱ receiveȱ theirȱ reȬ wards.66ȱ Inȱ theȱ thirdȱ section,ȱ Erȱ witnessesȱ aȱ heavenlyȱ lotteryȱ (617d–
621d).ȱTheȱsoulsȱdrawȱlots,ȱandȱeachȱcomesȱforthȱinȱtheȱorderȱtherebyȱ determinedȱ toȱ choose,ȱ fromȱ aȱ selection,ȱ theirȱ daemonsȱ andȱ theirȱ nextȱ lives.ȱ Sinceȱ choosingȱ aȱ lifeȱ andȱ daemonȱ inevitablyȱ determinesȱ characȬ ter,ȱ evenȱ character,ȱ andȱ thusȱ one’sȱ virtue,ȱ isȱ predeterminedȱ byȱ thisȱ choice.ȱȱ
Inȱtheȱsecondȱsectionȱofȱtheȱmythȱ(616b–617d),ȱaȱdescriptionȱofȱtheȱ cosmosȱ isȱ given,ȱ althoughȱ howȱ exactlyȱ Erȱ attainedȱ thisȱ visionȱ isȱ notȱ clear.67ȱ Itȱ isȱ neverȱ expresslyȱ statedȱ thatȱ heȱ “ascended”ȱ toȱ aȱ vantageȱ pointȱ fromȱ whichȱ heȱ couldȱ seeȱ theȱ universe.68ȱ Rather,ȱ heȱ movesȱ withȱ theȱsoulsȱwhoȱhadȱgatheredȱinȱtheȱmeadowȱtowardsȱaȱshaftȱofȱlightȱthatȱ shootsȱ throughȱ theȱ centerȱ ofȱ theȱ earthȱ likeȱ aȱ spindleȱ andȱ extendsȱ upȬ wardsȱ andȱ downwardsȱ toȱ theȱ extremitiesȱ ofȱ theȱ heavens,ȱ fromȱ whichȱ theȱlightȱspreadsȱintoȱaȱsphereȱtoȱmarkȱtheȱboundariesȱofȱtheȱcosmos.69ȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ
64ȱȱ ForȱaȱdiscussionȱofȱPlato’sȱusesȱandȱunderstandingsȱofȱtheȱtermȱmu~qoj,ȱseeȱaboveȱp.ȱ 50ȱfn.ȱ54.ȱȱȱ
65ȱȱ Onȱ theȱ problemȱ ofȱ attemptingȱ toȱ findȱ sourcesȱ forȱ theȱ myth,ȱ seeȱ Halliwell,ȱ Republicȱ 10,ȱ169.ȱ
66ȱȱ Accordingȱtoȱaȱsimilarȱcosmologicalȱmythȱinȱtheȱ Phaedoȱ(110b–114c),ȱtheȱjustȱresideȱ onȱanȱidealȱearthȱwhichȱexistsȱaboveȱtheȱearthȱuponȱwhichȱweȱcurrentlyȱdwell,ȱapȬ parentlyȱonȱtheȱsurfaceȱofȱwhatȱweȱmightȱcallȱtheȱatmosphere.ȱInȱthisȱrealm,ȱhumanȱ beingsȱmayȱencounterȱgodsȱandȱinteractȱwithȱthemȱfaceȱtoȱface.ȱȱȱȱȱ
67ȱȱ ForȱaȱdiscussionȱofȱpossibleȱinfluencesȱonȱPlato’sȱastronomy,ȱseeȱHalliwell,ȱRepublicȱ 10,ȱ19–20.ȱ
68ȱȱ J.ȱA.ȱStewart,ȱTheȱMythsȱofȱPlatoȱ(London:ȱCentaurȱPress,ȱ1960),ȱ157.ȱ
69ȱȱ Forȱexcellentȱdiagramsȱandȱexplanationsȱofȱtheȱcosmology,ȱseeȱR.ȱWaterfield,ȱnotesȱ toȱ Plato,ȱ Republicȱ (trans.ȱ R.ȱ Waterfield;ȱ Oxfordȱ World’sȱ Classics;ȱ Oxford:ȱ Oxfordȱ UniversityȱPress,ȱ1993),ȱ453–57;ȱseeȱalsoȱStewart,ȱMythsȱofȱPlato,ȱ157–78.ȱ
ȱ HeavenlyȱAscentȱasȱPhilosophicalȱMythȱȱ 55ȱ
Thisȱlightȱisȱcomparedȱtoȱaȱrainbow.70ȱSocratesȱthenȱdescribesȱtheȱeightȱ concentricȱ circlesȱ ofȱ theȱ universeȱ whichȱ coincideȱ withȱ theȱ moon,ȱ sun,ȱ fiveȱ planets,ȱandȱ theȱ fixedȱ stars.ȱWeȱ neverȱ discoverȱhowȱ muchȱ ofȱ thisȱ universeȱ theȱ justȱ areȱ ableȱ toȱ traverseȱ orȱ experienceȱ onceȱ theyȱ passȱ throughȱtheȱportalȱofȱtheȱheavens.ȱȱȱ
2.ȱErȱneverȱactuallyȱfollowsȱanyȱofȱtheȱsoulsȱtoȱtheirȱplacesȱofȱpunȬ ishmentȱ orȱ reward,ȱ butȱ heȱ apparentlyȱ overhearsȱ theȱ soulsȱ whoȱ haveȱ justȱcompletedȱtheirȱtimeȱofȱpunishmentȱorȱrewardȱwhenȱtheyȱgatherȱinȱ aȱmeadow.ȱTheȱsoulsȱrecentlyȱreturnedȱfromȱheavenlyȱrewardȱsayȱthatȱ theȱbeautyȱtheyȱencounteredȱwasȱinexplicableȱ(a)mh&xanojȱ[615a]).ȱ
3.ȱSinceȱErȱdoesȱnotȱappearȱtoȱleaveȱtheȱearth,71ȱonlyȱhisȱsoulȱmakesȱ theȱ journey.ȱ Hisȱ journeyȱ conformsȱ toȱ theȱ typeȱ ofȱ theȱ iatromentesȱ disȬ cussedȱinȱanȱearlierȱsection.72ȱHeȱappearsȱtoȱdie,ȱbutȱhisȱbodyȱremainsȱ incorrupt,ȱwhileȱhisȱsoul,ȱfreeȱofȱtheȱbody,ȱwandersȱtoȱseeȱtheȱmeetingȱ placeȱofȱtheȱdead.ȱȱȱ
4.ȱ Er’sȱ soulȱ canȱ beȱ freedȱ onlyȱ becauseȱ heȱ wasȱ killedȱ (orȱ almostȱ killed),ȱpresumablyȱaȱpainfulȱexperience.ȱ
5.ȱErȱreceivesȱaȱcommission.ȱHeȱisȱexplicitlyȱtoldȱthatȱheȱhasȱmadeȱ hisȱjourneyȱforȱaȱreason;ȱheȱisȱtoȱbecomeȱanȱa!ggeloj a)nqrw&poijȱ(mesȬ sengerȱ toȱ humanȱ beings)ȱ andȱ returnȱ toȱ tellȱ othersȱ whatȱ awaitsȱ themȱ (614d).ȱInȱthisȱrespect,ȱErȱresemblesȱtheȱphilosopherȱwhoȱhasȱemergedȱ fromȱtheȱcaveȱtoȱtellȱotherȱhumanȱbeingsȱaboutȱaȱrealityȱbeyondȱtheȱoneȱ toȱ whichȱ theyȱ areȱ accustomed.73ȱ Inȱ theȱ imaginativeȱ worldȱ ofȱ theȱ diaȬ logue,ȱ Socratesȱ “knows”ȱ throughȱ rationalȱ argument;ȱ Erȱ “knows”ȱ throughȱtheȱdirectȱexperienceȱofȱtheȱotherȱworld.ȱȱȱ
Theȱ mythȱ itselfȱ alsoȱ servesȱ Plato’sȱ philosophicalȱ purposesȱ inȱ theȱ Republic.ȱ Theȱ firstȱ movementȱ ofȱ theȱ mythȱ illustratesȱ Socrates’ȱ earlierȱ argumentȱforȱtheȱimmortalityȱofȱtheȱsoulȱ(608c–611a)ȱandȱespeciallyȱhisȱ insistenceȱ thatȱ thereȱ areȱ rewardsȱ forȱ justiceȱ bothȱ withinȱ andȱ afterȱ earthlyȱ existenceȱ (611a–614a,ȱ esp.ȱ 612d–614a).ȱ Theȱ cosmologyȱ appearsȱ toȱ expressȱ theȱ harmony,ȱ order,ȱ justice,ȱ andȱ beautyȱ ofȱ theȱ cosmosȱ deȬ spiteȱ theȱ seemingȱ injusticesȱ individualsȱ mayȱ face.74ȱ Theȱ heavenlyȱ lotȬ teryȱ demonstratesȱ thatȱ trainingȱ inȱ philosophyȱ isȱ crucial,ȱ forȱ itȱ teachesȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ
70ȱȱ Theȱlightȱma&lista th~| i1ridi prosferh~ȱ(616b).ȱ
71ȱȱ SoȱStewart,ȱMythsȱofȱPlato,ȱ157–59;ȱ174;ȱWaterfield,ȱRepublic,ȱ454.ȱ 72ȱȱ Coulianu,ȱExpériencesȱdeȱl’extase,ȱ41.ȱ
73ȱȱ ThisȱobservationȱisȱalsoȱmadeȱbyȱClaudiaȱBaracchi,ȱOfȱMyth,ȱLife,ȱandȱWarȱinȱPlato’sȱ Republicȱ (Studiesȱ inȱ Continentalȱ Thought;ȱ Bloomington,ȱ Ind.:ȱ Indianaȱ Universityȱ Press,ȱ2002),ȱ180;ȱsheȱprovidesȱsupplementaryȱevidenceȱforȱtheȱphilosopherȱasȱmesȬ sengerȱ(181–85).ȱ
74ȱȱ Waterfield,ȱRepublic,ȱ455–56;ȱHalliwell,ȱRepublicȱ10,ȱ18–21;ȱBaracchi,ȱOfȱMyth,ȱLife,ȱandȱ War,ȱ189;ȱAnnas,ȱ“Plato’sȱMythsȱofȱJudgment,”ȱ135–36.ȱ
56ȱ AscentȱtoȱHeavenȱinȱtheȱGrecoȬRomanȱWorldȱ ȱ
oneȱhowȱtoȱchooseȱtheȱgoodȱlife.ȱTheȱmythȱitself,ȱhowever,ȱshouldȱnotȱ beȱ takenȱ literallyȱ inȱ allȱ ofȱ itsȱ particulars.ȱ Inȱ theȱ Phaedo,ȱ afterȱ aȱ similarȱ myth,ȱ Socratesȱ explains,ȱ “Nowȱ itȱ wouldȱ notȱ beȱ fittingȱ forȱ aȱ manȱ ofȱ senseȱtoȱmaintainȱthatȱallȱthisȱisȱjustȱasȱIȱhaveȱdescribedȱit,ȱbutȱthatȱthisȱ orȱsomethingȱlikeȱitȱisȱtrueȱconcerningȱourȱsoulsȱandȱtheirȱabodes,ȱsinceȱ theȱsoulȱisȱshownȱtoȱbeȱimmortal,ȱIȱthinkȱheȱmayȱproperlyȱandȱworthilyȱ ventureȱtoȱbelieve”ȱ(114dȱ[Fowler,ȱLCL]).ȱȱȱ
Er’sȱ journeyȱ representsȱ anȱ alternativeȱ wayȱ ofȱ knowing,ȱ justȱ asȱ theȱ useȱofȱtheȱmythȱallowsȱPlatoȱanȱalternativeȱwayȱofȱexpressingȱtheȱtruthsȱ heȱwishesȱtoȱconvey.ȱErȱisȱaȱprivilegedȱindividualȱwhoȱknowsȱtheȱ“realȱ story”ȱofȱlifeȱafterȱdeath,ȱandȱthusȱheȱcanȱreturnȱtoȱspurȱothersȱonȱtoȱaȱ moreȱvirtuousȱlife.ȱȱȱȱ
2.3.2.ȱCicero’sȱDreamȱofȱScipioȱ(54–51ȱBCE)75ȱ
Disillusionedȱ withȱ politicsȱ afterȱ Pompeyȱ renewedȱ hisȱ allianceȱ withȱ Caesar,ȱ Ciceroȱ largelyȱ withdrewȱ fromȱ publicȱ lifeȱ andȱ wrote.76ȱ Oneȱ productȱwasȱtheȱRepublic,ȱwhichȱbothȱidealizedȱanȱearlierȱperiodȱofȱtheȱ Romanȱ Republicȱ andȱ expressedȱ Cicero’sȱ hopesȱ thatȱ theȱ rightȱ leaderȱ couldȱ resuscitateȱ theȱ falteringȱ government.ȱ Whateverȱ Cicero’sȱ debtȱ toȱ Plato,ȱPaulȱMacKendrickȱobservesȱthatȱCiceroȱ“setsȱupȱasȱhisȱmodelȱnotȱ theȱ Platonicȱ ideal,ȱ butȱ theȱ actualȱ (orȱ rather,ȱ idealized)ȱ Romanȱ comȬ monwealthȱ ofȱ theȱ ageȱ ofȱ Aemilianus.”77ȱ Whenȱ Ciceroȱ wroteȱ hisȱ ownȱ Republic,ȱheȱfollowedȱhisȱliteraryȱforebearȱinȱconcludingȱtheȱworkȱwithȱ aȱvisionȱofȱpostȬmortemȱexistenceȱthatȱtiesȱintoȱtheȱlargerȱthemesȱofȱtheȱ work.78ȱHowever,ȱCiceroȱdoesȱnotȱreworkȱtheȱmythȱofȱEr.ȱȱRather,ȱtheȱ taleȱ isȱ Cicero’sȱ ownȱ literaryȱ invention,ȱ reflectingȱ hisȱ ownȱ purposes,ȱ context,ȱ andȱworldview.79ȱ Mostȱ importantlyȱ forȱ ourȱpurposes,ȱ itȱisȱ CiȬ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ
75ȱȱ Forȱthisȱdate,ȱseeȱJ.ȱG.ȱF.ȱPowell,ȱCicero:ȱLaelius,ȱOnȱFriendshipȱandȱtheȱDreamȱofȱScipioȱ (Warminster,ȱEngland:ȱArisȱ&ȱPhillips,ȱ1990),ȱ120.ȱ
76ȱȱ TheȱdataȱinȱthisȱparagraphȱisȱbasedȱalmostȱentirelyȱonȱJohnȱPercyȱVyvian,ȱMiriamȱT.ȱ Griffin,ȱDirkȱObbink,ȱandȱJohnȱHedleyȱSimon,ȱ“Cicero,”ȱinȱTheȱOxfordȱCompanionȱtoȱ Classicalȱ Civilizationȱ (ed.ȱ S.ȱ Hornblowerȱ andȱ A.ȱ Spawforth;ȱ Oxford:ȱ Oxfordȱ UniverȬ sityȱPress,ȱ1998),159–67;ȱbutȱseeȱalsoȱJürgenȱLeonhardt,ȱ“Cicero,”ȱBNPȱ3:322–27.ȱ 77ȱȱ Theȱ Philosophicalȱ Booksȱ ofȱ Ciceroȱ (withȱ K.ȱ L.ȱ Singh;ȱ Newȱ York:ȱ St.ȱ Martin’sȱ Press,ȱ
1989),ȱ55.ȱOnȱtheȱvariousȱphilosophicalȱsourcesȱofȱtheȱwork,ȱseeȱ55–60.ȱ
78ȱȱ Cicero’sȱRepublicȱsurvivesȱonlyȱinȱpart;ȱtheȱdreamȱofȱScipioȱwasȱpreservedȱindepenȬ dentlyȱ inȱ Macrobius’ȱ commentary.ȱ Forȱ theȱ textualȱ traditionȱ ofȱ Republic,ȱ seeȱ Powell,ȱ Cicero:Laelius,ȱ119,ȱ133.ȱ
79ȱȱ OnȱtheȱrelationshipȱbetweenȱtheȱmythȱofȱErȱandȱCicero’sȱdreamȱofȱScipio,ȱseeȱibid.,ȱ 122–23;ȱ Powellȱ notesȱ thatȱ “Cicero’sȱ cosmologyȱ owesȱ muchȱ moreȱ toȱ Plato’sȱ Timaeusȱ andȱ toȱ theȱ currentȱ speculationsȱ ofȱ realȱ astronomers”ȱ thanȱ toȱ Erȱ (23;ȱ thoughȱ Powellȱ
ȱ HeavenlyȱAscentȱasȱPhilosophicalȱMythȱȱ 57ȱ
ceroȱ whoȱ firstȱ transformsȱ theȱ “journeyȱ ofȱ revelation”ȱ intoȱ aȱ heavenlyȱ ascent.ȱ
Scipio,ȱoneȱofȱtheȱspeakersȱinȱtheȱdialogue,ȱrecountsȱhowȱheȱfellȱasȬ leepȱ andȱ dreamedȱ thatȱ hisȱ grandfather,ȱ Africanus,ȱ appearedȱ toȱ him.ȱ Africanus,ȱalongȱwithȱScipio’sȱfatherȱPaulusȱwhoȱappearsȱlater,ȱservesȱ asȱ Scipio’sȱ guideȱ andȱ revealsȱ theȱ trueȱ purposeȱ andȱ finalȱ rewardsȱ ofȱ humanȱlife.ȱAfricanus’sȱmessageȱtoȱScipioȱisȱultimatelyȱsimple:ȱhumanȱ beingsȱshouldȱdoȱtheirȱdutyȱandȱserveȱtheirȱcountry,ȱandȱthoseȱwhoȱdoȱ soȱwillȱliveȱeternallyȱinȱtheȱheavensȱ(6.13).ȱȱȱ
1.ȱ Inȱ theȱ dreamȱ ofȱ Scipio,ȱ theȱ heavensȱ containȱ nineȱ spheres—theȱ sphereȱofȱtheȱfixedȱstars,ȱtheȱsevenȱplanets,80ȱandȱlastlyȱtheȱearthȱ(6.17).ȱ Scipioȱascendsȱ gradually,ȱ leavingȱ theȱ earthȱ behind.ȱ Asȱ Scipioȱ gazesȱ atȱ theȱ Milkyȱ Way,ȱ whichȱ theȱ soulsȱ ofȱ theȱ deceasedȱ inhabit,ȱ heȱ describesȱ theȱsightȱasȱ“aȱcircleȱofȱbrilliantȱwhiteness,ȱshiningȱoutȱandȱsurroundedȱ byȱflames”ȱ(6.16).81ȱThisȱsphereȱisȱalsoȱdescribedȱasȱ“theȱhighestȱdiviniȬ ty”ȱ(6.17).ȱTheȱsoulsȱofȱtheȱjustȱreturnȱtoȱbeȱpartȱofȱtheȱdeityȱthatȱgovȬ ernsȱandȱcontainsȱtheȱcosmos.ȱIndeed,ȱPaulusȱexplainsȱthatȱhumanȱbeȬ ingsȱreceiveȱtheȱstuffȱofȱtheirȱsoulsȱfromȱtheȱfireȱofȱtheȱplanetsȱandȱstarsȱ (6.15).82ȱUnlikeȱPlato’sȱorȱParmenides’sȱviewȱofȱtheȱworld,ȱtheȱsoulȱdoesȱ notȱmoveȱbeyondȱtheȱmaterialȱcosmos,ȱforȱdeityȱitselfȱisȱassociatedȱwithȱ aȱmaterial,ȱvisibleȱphenomenonȱfromȱwhichȱtheȱsoulȱderives.ȱAlthoughȱ theȱdreamȱitselfȱisȱaȱfiction,ȱthereȱisȱnoȱreasonȱtoȱdoubtȱthatȱCiceroȱasȬ cribedȱ toȱ theȱ basicȱ anthropologyȱ andȱ eschatologyȱ describedȱ therein.83ȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ
hereȱdoesȱnotȱseemȱtoȱgiveȱfullȱdueȱtoȱStoicȱinfluence;ȱcompareȱhisȱownȱcommentary,ȱ 155,ȱ 158).ȱ Forȱ otherȱ influences,ȱ seeȱ ibid.,ȱ 128–30,ȱ whereȱ Powellȱ arguesȱ thatȱ weȱ canȱ oftenȱidentifyȱtheȱsourcesȱofȱhisȱideasȱbutȱthatȱtheȱdreamȱitselfȱisȱanȱoriginalȱliteraryȱ inventionȱforȱwhichȱnoȱ“protoȬSomnium”ȱexists.ȱForȱaȱmoreȱextensiveȱanalysisȱofȱtheȱ sourcesȱ andȱ influencesȱ onȱ individualȱ conceptsȱ andȱ motifs,ȱ compareȱ Karlȱ Büchner,ȱ SomniumȱScipionies:ȱQuellen,ȱGestalt,ȱSinnȱ(HermesȱZeitschriftȱfürȱklassischeȱPhiloloȬ gieȱ Einzelschriftenȱ 36;ȱ Wiesbaden:ȱ Franzȱ Steiner,ȱ 1976),ȱ whoȱ alsoȱ argues,ȱ however,ȱ thatȱthereȱwasȱnoȱdirectȱVorlageȱforȱtheȱdreamȱitselfȱ(72).ȱForȱtheȱdreamȱofȱScipioȱinȱ general,ȱseeȱalsoȱP.ȱ Boyancé,ȱÉtudesȱsurȱleȱsongeȱdeȱScipion:ȱ Essaisȱ d’histoireȱetȱdeȱpsyȬ chologieȱreligieusesȱ(Limoges:ȱImprimerieȱA.ȱBontemps,ȱ1936;ȱrepr.,ȱGreekȱandȱRomanȱ Philosophyȱ6;ȱNewȱYork:ȱGarland,ȱ1987).ȱ
80ȱȱ Theȱfiveȱknownȱplanetsȱplusȱtheȱsunȱandȱmoon.ȱ
81ȱȱ Allȱquotationsȱfromȱtheȱ“DreamȱofȱScipio”ȱareȱfromȱtheȱtranslationȱofȱPowell,ȱCicero:ȱ Laelius,ȱunlessȱotherwiseȱnoted.ȱ
82ȱȱ SoȱalsoȱPliny,ȱNat.ȱHist.,ȱwhoȱspeaksȱofȱHipparchusȱwhoȱprovedȱthatȱ“manȱisȱrelatedȱ toȱtheȱstarsȱandȱthatȱourȱsoulsȱareȱaȱpartȱofȱheaven”ȱ(2.8.49ȱ[Rackham,ȱLCL]).ȱOnȱthisȱ topic,ȱseeȱBoyancé,ȱÉtudesȱsurȱleȱsonge,ȱ129–33.ȱ
83ȱȱ ContraȱBüchner,ȱSomniumȱScipionis,ȱ84–88.ȱPowell,ȱCicero:ȱLaelius,ȱpointsȱoutȱthatȱtheȱ astronomyȱofȱtheȱdreamȱisȱ“aȱvisionȱofȱtheȱactualȱuniverseȱasȱitȱwasȱthoughtȱtoȱbe,ȱatȱ leastȱbyȱoneȱinfluentialȱschoolȱofȱancientȱthought”ȱ(123).ȱPowellȱalsoȱnotesȱtheȱconȬ ceptualȱ rootsȱ ofȱ “theȱ ideasȱ onȱ theȱ soul,ȱ itsȱ immortalityȱ andȱ theȱ afterȬlife”ȱ inȱ PlatoȬ
58ȱ AscentȱtoȱHeavenȱinȱtheȱGrecoȬRomanȱWorldȱ ȱ
Theȱ heavensȱ becomeȱ theȱ naturalȱ placeȱ toȱ receiveȱ revelationȱ aboutȱ theȱ ultimateȱpurposeȱofȱhumanȱlife,ȱforȱhumanȱbeingsȱcomeȱfromȱtheȱheavȬ ensȱandȱtheȱjustȱwillȱreturnȱtoȱthem.84ȱ
2.ȱ Nothingȱ suggestsȱ thatȱ theȱ revelationsȱ Scipioȱ learnsȱ shouldȱ beȱ keptȱsecret.ȱ
3.ȱTheȱbodilyȱstatusȱofȱScipioȱisȱneverȱexplainedȱprecisely,ȱandȱperȬ hapsȱ theȱ factȱ thatȱ theȱ visionȱ isȱ aȱ dreamȱ rendersȱ explanationȱ unnecesȬ sary.ȱ Finalȱ enjoymentȱ ofȱ heavenlyȱ rewards,ȱ however,ȱ requiresȱ surrenȬ deringȱtheȱbody.ȱHumanȱbeingsȱbecomeȱembodiedȱbyȱtheȱwillȱofȱgod,ȱ butȱ sinceȱ humanȱ beings’ȱ soulsȱ areȱ divine,ȱ whileȱ onȱ earthȱ theyȱ shouldȱ striveȱ toȱ imitateȱ andȱ pleaseȱ godȱ byȱ seekingȱ toȱ governȱ andȱ orderȱ theirȱ commonwealthȱ justly.ȱ Thoseȱ whoȱ dutifullyȱ serveȱ theȱ commonwealthȱ willȱ receiveȱ eternalȱ lifeȱ amongȱ theȱ stars,ȱ “havingȱ flownȱ outȱ fromȱ theȱ bondsȱofȱtheȱbody,ȱasȱfromȱaȱprison”ȱ(6.14).ȱȱ
4.ȱTheȱascentȱitselfȱisȱneverȱrelatedȱtoȱpainȱorȱpower.ȱReturnȱtoȱthisȱ heavenlyȱ home,ȱ however,ȱ requiresȱ bodilyȱ disciplineȱ asȱ wellȱ asȱ selfȬ sacrifice.ȱAfricanusȱexplainsȱthatȱonlyȱthoseȱwhoȱlearnȱtoȱcontrolȱtheirȱ bodilyȱ desiresȱ andȱ appetitesȱ canȱ beȱ justȱ rulers,ȱ andȱ contemplationȱ ofȱ theȱ heavens,ȱ theȱ soul’sȱ trueȱ home,ȱ canȱ helpȱ leadȱ theȱ mindȱ awayȱ fromȱ theȱbodyȱ(6.29).ȱ
5.ȱLikeȱtheȱmythȱofȱEr,ȱtheȱdreamȱofȱScipioȱreinforcesȱmoralȱconductȱ throughȱ aȱ visionȱ ofȱ theȱ afterlife.ȱ However,ȱ bothȱ theȱ visionȱ andȱ theȱ moralȱ codeȱ haveȱ beenȱ Romanized,ȱ forȱ theȱ moralȱ idealȱ isȱ theȱ spiritȱ ofȱ selfȬsacrificeȱinȱtheȱinterestȱofȱtheȱcommonȱgood.85ȱUltimately,ȱonlyȱtheȱ manȱwhoȱlooksȱtoȱheavenȱandȱtheȱgloryȱofȱitsȱrewardsȱwillȱproveȱfitȱforȱ restoringȱequilibriumȱinȱtheȱveryȱpracticalȱandȱdownȱtoȱearthȱbusinessȱ ofȱpolitics.ȱTheȱascentȱalsoȱallowsȱScipioȱtoȱrealizeȱtheȱrelativeȱinsigniȬ ficanceȱ ofȱ hisȱ ownȱ countryȱ andȱ evenȱ ofȱ hisȱ worldȱ inȱ comparisonȱ withȱ theȱrestȱofȱtheȱcosmosȱ(6.20–25).ȱHeȱisȱtaughtȱtheȱfutilityȱofȱseekingȱafterȱ reputationȱ amongȱ humanȱ beings.ȱ Inȱ additionȱ toȱ thisȱ cosmicȱ perspecȬ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ
nismȱ (128–30).ȱ Thereȱ isȱ noȱ apparentȱ reasonȱ toȱ doubtȱ thatȱ Ciceroȱ isȱ offeringȱ aȱ relaȬ tivelyȱaccurateȱportraitȱofȱhisȱunderstandingȱofȱtheȱoriginsȱandȱdestinyȱofȱtheȱsoul.ȱ 84ȱȱ CompareȱTabor,ȱThingsȱUnutterable,ȱ79.ȱTheȱunjustȱareȱdoomedȱtoȱwanderȱaboutȱtheȱ
earthȱ(6.29).ȱ
85ȱȱ SeeȱMalcolmȱSchofield’sȱ“Cicero’sȱDefinitionȱofȱResȱPublica,”ȱinȱCiceroȱtheȱPhilosopher:ȱ TwelveȱPapersȱ(ed.ȱJ.ȱG.ȱF.ȱPowell;ȱOxford:ȱClarendonȱPress,ȱ1995),ȱ63–83,ȱesp.ȱ69–77.ȱ Schofieldȱisȱnotȱattemptingȱtoȱelucidateȱtheȱ“DreamȱofȱScipio,”ȱbutȱhisȱremarksȱconȬ cerningȱCicero’sȱdistinctȱcontributionsȱtoȱpoliticalȱphilosophyȱ(namely,ȱCicero’sȱemȬ phasisȱ thatȱ “theȱ governmentȱ inȱ conductingȱ publicȱ affairsȱ adequatelyȱ consultsȱ theȱ interestsȱofȱtheȱpeople,”ȱ74)ȱcoincideȱwithȱtheȱthrustȱofȱtheȱdream.ȱSeeȱalsoȱ65,ȱwhereȱ Schofieldȱ notesȱ alsoȱ theȱ importanceȱ forȱ Romansȱ ofȱ militaryȱ service.ȱ Seeȱ alsoȱ MacȬ Kendrick,ȱPhilosophicalȱBooks,ȱ60–63.ȱ
ȱ HeavenlyȱAscentȱasȱPhilosophicalȱMythȱȱ 59ȱ
tive,ȱ Scipioȱ learnsȱ aboutȱ theȱ futureȱ courseȱ ofȱ hisȱ careerȱ fromȱ AfriȬ canus.86ȱȱ
2.3.3.ȱPlutarch’sȱPhilosophicalȱMythsȱ 2.3.3.1.ȱTheȱFaceȱonȱtheȱMoonȱ
1.ȱ Inȱ theȱ courseȱ ofȱ hisȱ Moralia,ȱ Plutarchȱ offersȱ noȱ lessȱ thanȱ threeȱ acȬ countsȱofȱtheȱsoul’sȱfateȱinȱtheȱheavens,ȱtwoȱofȱwhichȱareȱcastȱasȱheavȬ enlyȱjourneys.87ȱTheȱtreatiseȱTheȱFaceȱonȱtheȱMoonȱincludesȱaȱdescriptionȱ ofȱtheȱsoul’sȱfateȱafterȱdeathȱ(941f–945a).88ȱAlthoughȱthisȱaccountȱisȱnotȱ revealedȱthroughȱaȱheavenlyȱascent,ȱitȱisȱnonethelessȱinformative.ȱPluȬ tarch’sȱ heavenȱ appearsȱ toȱ consistȱ ofȱ threeȱ realms:ȱ theȱ earth’sȱ shadow,ȱ theȱ moon,ȱ andȱ theȱ sun.ȱ Theȱ evilȱ cannotȱ riseȱ pastȱ theȱ earth’sȱ shadow.ȱ Theȱgoodȱcanȱriseȱbeyondȱtheȱearth’sȱshadow,ȱbutȱnotȱuntilȱtheyȱunderȬ goȱaȱsecondȱdeathȱofȱtheȱsoulȱcanȱtheȱmindȱpassȱonȱandȱbecomeȱdivineȱ (942f).ȱ However,ȱ evenȱ theȱ goodȱ mustȱ tarryȱ forȱ aȱ whileȱ betweenȱ theȱ earthȱ andȱ theȱ sunȱ whileȱ “pollutionsȱ contractedȱ fromȱ theȱ body”ȱ areȱ purgedȱ(943c).89ȱWhenȱtheseȱsoulsȱdoȱfinallyȱpassȱhigher,ȱPlutarchȱcomȬ paresȱ theirȱ joyȱ toȱ thatȱ ofȱ initiates,ȱ telou&menoiȱ (943c),ȱ andȱ theirȱ appearȬ anceȱbecomesȱlikeȱlightȱ(943d–e).ȱȱȱ
2.3.3.2.ȱOnȱtheȱDelaysȱofȱtheȱDivineȱVengeanceȱ
InȱOnȱtheȱDelaysȱofȱtheȱDivineȱVengeanceȱ(563b–568),ȱtheȱascentȱnarrativeȱ functionsȱasȱaȱmoralityȱtale,ȱmuchȱlikeȱtheȱmythȱofȱEr.ȱJustȱasȱtheȱmythȱ ofȱ Erȱ occursȱ towardȱ theȱ endȱ ofȱ theȱ Republicȱ toȱ clinchȱ theȱ argumentȱ and/orȱprovideȱaȱvividȱillustration,ȱsoȱalsoȱtheȱascentȱinȱDelaysȱservesȱasȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ
86ȱȱ Interestingly,ȱ however,ȱ Scipio’sȱ futureȱ hasȱ notȱ beenȱ entirelyȱ determined,ȱ forȱ AfriȬ canusȱforeseesȱ“aȱforkȱinȱtheȱroadȱofȱdestiny”ȱ(6.12,ȱPowell).ȱ
87ȱȱ Aȱ shortȱ andȱ helpfulȱ introductionȱ toȱ Plutarchȱ isȱ R.ȱ Lamberton,ȱ Plutarchȱ (Hermesȱ Books;ȱNewȱHaven:ȱYaleȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ2001);ȱthisȱworkȱisȱparticularlyȱgermaneȱ toȱtheȱpresentȱtopicȱbecauseȱitȱcontainsȱdiscussionsȱofȱbothȱTheȱFaceȱonȱtheȱMoonȱandȱ OnȱtheȱSignȱofȱSocrates,ȱ172–87;ȱseeȱalsoȱ27–40.ȱAlsoȱhelpfulȱonȱtheȱtopicȱofȱPlutarch’sȱ conceptionȱ ofȱ daemonsȱ isȱ R.ȱ H.ȱ Barrow,ȱ Plutarchȱ andȱ hisȱ Timesȱ (Bloomington,ȱ Ind.:ȱ IndianaȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1967),ȱ86–91.ȱȱ
88ȱȱ Forȱ anȱ inȬdepthȱ treatmentȱ ofȱ thisȱ work,ȱ seeȱ H.ȱ Görgemanns,ȱ Untersuchungenȱ zuȱ Plutarchsȱ Dialogȱ Deȱ Facieȱ inȱ orbeȱ lunaeȱ (Bibliothekȱ derȱ klassischenȱ AltertumswissenȬ schaftenȱ2/33;ȱHeidelberg:ȱCarlȱWinterȱUniversitätsverlag,ȱ1970).ȱ
89ȱȱ Allȱ translationsȱ fromȱ Plutarch’sȱ Theȱ Faceȱ onȱ theȱ Moonȱ areȱ thoseȱ ofȱ Chernissȱ andȱ Helmbold,ȱLCL,ȱunlessȱotherwiseȱnoted.ȱ
60ȱ AscentȱtoȱHeavenȱinȱtheȱGrecoȬRomanȱWorldȱ ȱ
theȱ finaleȱ ofȱ theȱ treatiseȱ andȱ complementsȱ theȱ rationalȱ argumentsȱ putȱ forth.ȱAridaeus,ȱwhoȱhasȱledȱaȱdissoluteȱandȱdishonorableȱlife,ȱfallsȱandȱ isȱunconsciousȱforȱthreeȱdays.ȱHeȱascendsȱtoȱheavenȱtoȱseeȱtheȱfatesȱofȱ souls.ȱ
1.ȱ Aridaeus,ȱ whoȱ isȱ renamedȱ Thespesiosȱ byȱ hisȱ daemonȱ guide,90ȱ discoversȱthatȱdifferentȱsoulsȱhaveȱdifferentȱlevelsȱofȱluminosityȱ(564d–
e)ȱ andȱ witnessesȱ theȱ variousȱ levelsȱ ofȱ excruciatingȱ punishmentsȱ thatȱ wickedȱsoulsȱreceiveȱ(564e–565e;ȱ566e).ȱWickedȱsoulsȱmustȱhaveȱallȱofȱ theirȱ passionsȱ purgedȱ fromȱ themȱ byȱ extendedȱ tormentsȱ (565b).ȱ Theȱ differentȱcolorsȱofȱtheȱsoulsȱsymbolizeȱdifferentȱvicesȱ(565c).ȱThespesiosȱ discoversȱ thatȱ theȱ soul’sȱ susceptibilityȱ toȱ pleasureȱ isȱ whatȱ causesȱ itȱ toȱ remainȱinȱtheȱcycleȱofȱdeathȱandȱrebirthȱasȱheȱseesȱaȱprocessionȱofȱDioȬ nysiusȱleadingȱsoulsȱtoȱrebirth.ȱȱȱ
2.ȱLikeȱEr’sȱstory,ȱitȱisȱaȱmu~qoj,ȱaȱmythȱ(563b),ȱbutȱinȱthisȱcase,ȱitȱisȱaȱ storyȱthatȱhasȱbeenȱreservedȱforȱtheȱfewȱ(563e),ȱinȱcontrastȱtoȱtheȱcomȬ missionȱgivenȱtoȱEr.ȱ
3.ȱ Aridaeus’sȱ “intelligenceȱ (fronou~n)”ȱ ascendsȱ toȱ heavenȱ (563eȱ [deȱ LacyȱandȱEinarson,ȱLCL]),ȱandȱitȱbecomesȱlikeȱanȱeyeȱthatȱcanȱseeȱonȱallȱ sidesȱ(563e–f).ȱȱȱ
5.ȱTheȱexperienceȱresultsȱinȱtheȱmoralȱconversionȱofȱAridaeus,ȱwhoȱ becomesȱ anȱ upstandingȱ citizenȱ (563d–e).ȱ Inȱ theȱ immediateȱ contextȱ ofȱ theȱtreatise,ȱtheȱascentȱprovesȱtheȱcontentionȱthatȱtheȱwickedȱareȱeitherȱ punishedȱonȱearthȱorȱinȱtheȱupperȱspheres.ȱTheȱcosmosȱAridaeusȱseesȱisȱ aȱsymbolicȱexpressionȱofȱtheȱsoul’sȱfate,ȱjustȱasȱtheȱcosmosȱdescribedȱinȱ Faceȱ isȱ aȱ “realȱ image”ȱ disclosingȱ theȱ relationshipȱ betweenȱ mind,ȱ soul,ȱ andȱbody.91ȱȱȱ
2.3.3.3.ȱOnȱtheȱSignȱofȱSocratesȱ
Thisȱ ascentȱ occursȱ inȱ theȱ dialogue,ȱ Onȱ theȱ Signȱ ofȱ Socrates,ȱ aȱ workȱ ofȱ immenseȱcomplexity.92ȱArchedamusȱasksȱCaphisiasȱtoȱdescribeȱinȱdetailȱ theȱeventsȱofȱtheȱnightȱonȱwhichȱThebanȱpatriotsȱoverthrewȱtheȱSpartanȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ
90ȱȱ Theȱ newȱ nameȱ suggestsȱ “thingsȱ divineȱ andȱ strange”ȱ (deȱ Lacyȱ andȱ Einarson,ȱ introductionȱtoȱOnȱtheȱDelaysȱofȱtheȱDivineȱVengeanceȱinȱMoraliaȱbyȱPlutarchȱ(trans.ȱdeȱ Lacy,ȱ Einarson,ȱ etȱ al.;ȱ 15ȱ vols;ȱ LCL;ȱ Cambridge,ȱ Mass.:ȱ Harvardȱ Universityȱ Press,ȱ 1927–1969),ȱ7:170–79,ȱesp.ȱ7:173).ȱȱ
91ȱȱ Onȱsuchȱ“realȱimages”ȱinȱPlutarch,ȱseeȱtheȱnextȱsection,ȱesp.ȱpp.ȱ63–64.ȱ
92ȱȱ Althoughȱmyȱimmediateȱpurposesȱledȱmeȱtoȱdistinctȱinterestsȱinȱthisȱtext,ȱtwoȱshortȱ studiesȱ (inȱadditionȱtoȱLamberton,ȱ Plutarch)ȱprovedȱextremelyȱ helpfulȱinȱreckoningȱ withȱ theȱ complexityȱ ofȱ theȱ text:ȱ A.ȱ Georgiadou,ȱ “Epameinondasȱ andȱ theȱ Socraticȱ ParadigmȱinȱtheȱDeȱGenioȱSocratis,”ȱinȱPlutarcheaȱLovaniensia:ȱAȱMiscellanyȱofȱEssaysȱonȱ
ȱ HeavenlyȱAscentȱasȱPhilosophicalȱMythȱȱ 61ȱ
occupiersȱ andȱ theirȱ Thebanȱ collaborators.ȱ Theȱ speakerȱ describesȱ forȱ Archedamusȱtheȱintriguesȱofȱtheȱnightȱinȱquestionȱasȱwellȱasȱtheȱtopicsȱ ofȱ discussionȱ amongȱ theȱ conspiratorsȱ asȱ theyȱ awaitȱ theȱ momentȱ toȱ strike,ȱ andȱ theirȱ conversationȱ focusesȱ primarilyȱ onȱ twoȱ philosophicalȱ topics:ȱtheȱreceptionȱofȱmonetaryȱgiftsȱandȱtheȱdaemonionȱthatȱwasȱsupȬ
occupiersȱ andȱ theirȱ Thebanȱ collaborators.ȱ Theȱ speakerȱ describesȱ forȱ Archedamusȱtheȱintriguesȱofȱtheȱnightȱinȱquestionȱasȱwellȱasȱtheȱtopicsȱ ofȱ discussionȱ amongȱ theȱ conspiratorsȱ asȱ theyȱ awaitȱ theȱ momentȱ toȱ strike,ȱ andȱ theirȱ conversationȱ focusesȱ primarilyȱ onȱ twoȱ philosophicalȱ topics:ȱtheȱreceptionȱofȱmonetaryȱgiftsȱandȱtheȱdaemonionȱthatȱwasȱsupȬ