Stakeholder engagement and collaboration in doctoral education refer to participation and partnerships. In some countries such as the UK, France and Germany, stakeholder
engagement in higher education is well developed due to a long tradition of employer involvement in cooperative education, apprenticeships and teaching culture. Employers play a prominent role in higher education policy (de Weert, 2011). The next section discusses three levels of engagement and collaboration for stakeholders in doctoral education, including university-industry collaboration; university-industry-government collaboration; and university-university partnerships.
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2.5.1 University-Industry Collaboration
Growing demand for research partnership between industry and universities is part of the reform of doctoral education. Some studies on the collaboration of stakeholders in doctoral education (Borrell-Damian et al., 2010; Manathunga et al., 2012; Nyquist, 2002) reported on the interdependent system of partnerships among groups of stakeholders and called for greater engagement, particularly between universities and industry.
In the last two decades, the UK government has increased pressure on universities to develop stronger partnerships with industry (Becher & Trowler, 2001). Universities are now strategically positioning themselves to engage with the knowledge economy and contribute to innovation and the social well-being of society by producing doctoral graduates with high- level research skills and problem-solving capabilities (Borrell-Damian, 2009; Etzkowitz & Leydesdorff, 2000; Kehm, 2007). University-industry research collaboration in doctoral programs are encouraged, funded and monitored at a national level (Kehm, 2007). The European University Association identified a range of initiatives and funding to promote and support collaborative programs in Europe (Malfroy, 2011). In Australia, the emphasis on linking university research and industry partnerships has been sponsored by government funded schemes (Malfroy, 2011). This led to the establishment of Cooperative Research Centres (CRCs) in 1990 to forge university-industry links with the goal of producing industry- ready graduates (Pitt, Cox, & Manathunga, 2010). CRCs facilitate research collaboration between private firms and public universities, and are supported by the Australian Department of Innovation, Industry, Science and Research to prepare PhD graduates for non-academic jobs. This is an industry-university partnership in doctoral training rather than post-doctoral collaboration.
Research Councils in the UK actively encourage and facilitate partnerships between researchers, business and industry to develop their ideas beyond academia and put them into practice (Research Council United Kingdom, 2014). This has led to successful
innovations, scientific discoveries, spin-off companies, and collaborations. In Europe, much work has been undertaken to promote collaborative doctoral education (Borrell-Damian,
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2009; Borrell-Damian, Morais, & Smith, 2015). These researchers identified core components of collaboration as mutual trust, public support, regulatory framework,
leadership, time commitment, economic and human resources, drawn from good practice in universities and businesses. These components of collaborative doctoral education are a useful guide for countries wishing to pursue partnerships in doctoral programs.
The work of Perkman and Walsh was adapted by Guimon (2013) to produce a typology of university-industry links ranging from high-to low-intensity relationships. These included inter-organisational research services and partnerships for pursuing collaborative research; shared infrastructure by industry and universities, such as laboratories and equipment; academic entrepreneurship for the commercialisation of research; scientific publications; and the formation of social relationships through conferences and social networks. This typology embraces a wide range of links and connections for universities and industry. Strategies have been adopted for international collaboration between industry and
universities, for example, the establishment of Knowledge Transfer Organisations (KTO) or Technology Transfer Offices (TTO) and Cooperative Research Centres (CRC). KTOs or TTOs have similar objectives, originating in the USA in the 1980s to protect, exchange,
commercialise universities’ intellectual property and exploit research results. They serve as collaborators for university researchers to produce knowledge, for industry to market products, and for government to develop policies and provide funding. Both KTOs and TTOs also assist job creation and economic growth. CRCs are public-private collaborative research centres charged with promoting effective research effort and collaboration as indicated earlier under university-industry partnerships. These institutions all provide research opportunities for doctoral graduates.
2.5.2 University-Industry-Government Collaboration
Collaboration in doctoral education was advocated across sectors by Etzkowitz and Leydesdorff (2000), who developed an internationally recognised Triple Helix model of engagement among three key partners – university, industry and government. The model takes into account an understanding of entrepreneurship, the changing dynamics of
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universities, innovation and socio-economic development. Besides their traditional missions, the three sectors have overlapping roles. These hybrid organisations and networks serve to “institutionalize and reproduce interface as well as stimulate organizational creativity and regional cohesiveness” (Etzkowitz & Leydesdorff, 2000, p. 315). According to the Triple Helix theory, when industry invests in research laboratories, governments take the role of industry in supporting the development of industry-relevant research, and universities take the role of industry by capitalising on knowledge and becoming entrepreneurial (Thune, 2010). The Triple Helix model promotes engagement and collaboration between the university, industry and government, each in their respective but complementary roles. Universities supply the human capital, researchers and entrepreneurs, while industry makes financial capital available to commercialise and market products and/or services, and governments provide funding, incentives and policies. The Triple Helix model describes how universities, industry and governments interact in national and global knowledge production and innovation, and exposes the complexity of this interdependent relationship (Etzkowitz & Leydesdorff, 2000). The common goal of all stakeholders is to promote innovation, and the Triple Helix model emphasises their connection in the knowledge economy. Furthermore, it provides a way of thinking about engaging in strategic research (Manathunga et al., 2012). National policies have emphasised broader skills and the relevance of careers outside of academe, and this has led to reforms of doctoral education and researcher training reflective of the change (Thune, 2011).
Governments around the world are beginning to recognise the potential of doctoral
education and training capacity (Group of Eight, 2013). Some have implemented initiatives, such as the MyBrain15 project of the Malaysian Government to step up production of doctoral holders to 60,000 by 2023; the Brain Korea 21 plan and the Connect Korea Project of South Korea, aimed at promoting research in traditional elite universities and facilitating university-industry partnerships (Jørgensen, 2012b).
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2.5.3 University-University Partnerships
Research on university-university collaboration is scant. Bao et al. (2016) and Nerad (2011) reported on joint and dual doctoral programs among universities. In Europe, joint doctoral education is delivered by a consortium of at least three universities and promoted to enhance university collaboration (Jørgensen, 2012a).
The evolution of the doctorate has also brought about the cotutelle (co-tutoring) doctoral program or joint doctorate that originated in France and is offered jointly by agreement between two cooperating universities. These doctorates entail a joint curriculum for taught components, developed by the participating institutions. All participating institutions sign agreements on funding and candidature matters. The award of the degree from the enrolled university is a double degree based on joint supervision and the awarding of a joint degree. Germany, Spain, France, Italy, the UK, and the Netherlands (Bao et al., 2016) have taken the lead in offering these models of doctoral education. Iceland has set up cooperative
agreements with universities around the world for student research exchanges and joint programs and degrees (Nerad, 2011).
Joint PhD programs are offered by universities who cooperate in transactional networks. They provide a high degree of internationalisation and mobility, as well as opportunities for national and international collaboration through delivery of joint and dual doctoral
programs. Joint programs can be both domestic and international and require commitment and formal agreements. Such collaboration allows universities to become internationally renowned for their work, and promotes internationalisation through the exchange of academics and shared research projects.
One example of a university-university collaboration in SIDS was described by Simeon (2014). Seven universities in Malta, Mauritius, South Pacific, Virgin Islands, West Indies, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria and the Seychelles respectively formed the University Consortium of Small Island States (UCSIS) to collaborate in higher education. The main aim of the
consortium is to enhance the national capacity of graduate institutions in SIDS and address specific higher education challenges in a collaborative manner. This assists all SIDS, who have
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limited potential to achieve economies of scale on their own. UCSIS has the support of the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs and the government of Spain. Simeon also described a university-university research collaboration between University of Seychelles and a university in Sweden, formed with the objective of strengthening local research expertise and generating co-publications in priority fields of research.
Another example of a collaborative initiative is the Framework for the Internationalisation of Doctoral Education (FRINDOC), a consortium of six partner universities (University of Hong Kong, Stellenbosch University, Imperial College London, University of Bergen, University of Camerino, and Dublin Institute of Technology) managed by the European University Association. Its aims are to promote good practice in the internationalisation of doctoral education and support for mobility in doctoral programs.
The literature review provides insights into the evolution of doctoral education and defines the different modes and models of research production resulting from the reforms. The concept of human capital facilitates an understanding of the perspectives of PhD graduates as human capital and their areas of contribution. The nature of collaboration in university- industry, university-industry-government, and university-university partnerships provides opportunities for PhD graduates and stakeholder groups to work together and engage collaboratively for optimal outcomes from doctoral education. The review also inspired the conceptual framework for this study.