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Age group of the respondents

The most active age groups involved in JFM programme were 36 to 50 years followed by 21 to 35 years (see Figure 13). The study showed that the age of respondents had an effect on community participation in JFM. The older persons in the age groups above 50 years did not participate actively in JFM activities that were of physical and strenuous nature compared to the other age groups.

Similarly, more men (72%) than women participated in forestry activities due to the physical nature of forestry activities. As discussed under section 5.3.1.1, men and persons older than 21 years participated more in JFM activities because forestry activities were considered strenuous and only capable of being undertaken by men and the energetic members of the community.

Young people below the age of 21 years had also low participation level in JFM because of more and better off-forest opportunities. The other factor that discouraged young people from participating in JFM programme was the greater likelihood of older persons involved in the JFM to make decisions unilaterally. African rural society has greater respect for elderly members of the community (Behera and Engel, 2006). When elderly people get involved in programmes they often assumed leadership positions and would easily influence decisions. In such cases, young persons often fail to challenge decisions made by elders due to the respect they have for elders. As such, younger people would be reluctant to be involved or participate in the programme because they will have little or no influence in decision-making.

Marital status of the respondents

The married, divorced and widowed persons were also more involved in JFM than the unmarried respondents (see Figure 7). The single respondents were mostly below the age of 21 years signifying that the youth in the community were less involved in JFM.

The low participation of the youth in JFM could be attributed to their involvement in other activities such as education, formal employment, and trading that were regarded as high priority and more rewarding than JFM project.

The results conform to the factor of age indicated above where the younger respondents, who were generally single, were less involved in JFM. The young and single respondents seemed to be preoccupied with other socio-economic ventures that appear to be more profitable. In addition, this group is rarely targeted for awareness and sensitisation campaigns, and consequently are less involved in planning and implementation of developmental programmes. Most developmental programmes concentrate more on older members of communities and overlook the younger people, therefore, making them to have less or no interest in the programmes.

Educational levels of the respondents

More local people with higher education participated in JFM than those with lower or no formal education. Their high participation was likely due to increased understanding of the importance of forest conservation. The study also showed that

local people with formal education held key positions in the local forest management committees. The more literate members of the community are more likely to influence decisions as they were expected to have better information on the programme and are also better able to speak in public compared to community members with low or no education. Jumbe and Angelsen (2007) made similar observations in the community around Chimaliro Forest Reserve in Malawi that people with formal education held key positions in local forest committees.

Lise (2000) in the study conducted in India also found that when education level was significantly high among the local participating community, it stimulated participation. They also motivate other community members to participate (Lise, 2000; Wabash et al. (2001: cited in Dolisca, et al., 2006)), as they act as role models in the society and inspire others with lower or no formal education. But in cases where wage employment opportunities are available outside forests, people with higher education levels are less interested in forestry activities (Jumbe and Angelsen, 2007) where returns are low or non-existence.

Similarly, Thakadu (2005) reported that a community with low literacy level was expected to take more time to assimilate, adopt and adapt new polices and concepts.

Conversely, literate members of the community often tend to be more vociferous than illiterate members in expressing their views and are also more influential in decision-making. Behera and Engel (2006) also found that the more educated members of the community, the greater were the bargaining powers they possessed. However, the culture of elitism ought to be controlled because the elite in leadership positions may want to accrue more benefits to themselves at the disadvantage of other members of the community.

Social position of the respondents

Four social positions were recognised in the community during the study: the traditional leaders, forest committee members, forest user groups and ordinary community members. The results showed that members of the local forest management committees (FMC and VRMCs) participated more in JFM activities than traditional leaders and ordinary members of the communities.

These members of FMC and VRMCs in Dambwa were democratically elected from the local community for a two-year term (FD, 2004; GRZ, 2006). The higher involvement of committee members in JFM activities could be attributed to their commitment to JFM project and to fulfilment of their obligations as elected members of the management committees. Local management committee members had other privileges such as project bicycles, allowances during off-site meetings, authority and prestige. These incentives seemed to have compelled them to be more involved in JFM activities in order to retain their elected positions. Conversely, holding of free and fair elections in the community for local management committee members discourages social elites or economically and socially dominant groups to control the JFM activities. Social elites are reported to work towards their own interest and disadvantage economically and socially weaker members of the community (Arnold, 2001).

Household size of respondents

The average size for households surveyed was six (6), which indicated a family size of two parents and children or grand children. Household sizes had an effect on the local people’s participation in JFM activities. It was revealed that households with less than 6 members did not participate fully in JFM compared to households with more than six occupants (see Figure 9).

Among the rural communities, the top priority is food security. Households with fewer occupants therefore will prioritize food security to JFM activities, while those with large numbers of occupants can afford to participate in forestry activities. Larger households were able to allocate labour and time among the occupants and participate in JFM activities to diverse their livelihoods strategies unlike the smaller households.

Behera and Engel (2006) also found that smaller household sizes have difficulties to find time for JFM activities because of family responsibilities such as domestic or other chores.