Many scholars have described contemporary meanings of craft and ways to view it in
num erous ways.
T able 3.2 C o m p re h e n s iv e d e s c rip tio n s o f c ra ft by s c h o la rs
M eaning R eferences E xam ple
Concept (Adamson, 2007, pp.3, 6, 7;
Niedderer and Townsend, 2010, p.3)
Idea or thinking of doing something
Maker (Dormer, 1997, p.7) Craftsperson, e.g. weaver, carpenter,
potter, jew eller Skill and handwork (Lucie-Smith, 1981, p.7;
Dormer, 1997, p.7; Shiner, ed. by Alfoldy, 2007, p.40; Adamson, 2010, p.2)
Manual skill in weaving, carving, throwing, welding, etc.
Process used for making objects
(Lucie-Smith, 1981, p.7; Dormer, 1997, p.7; Shiner, ed. by Alfoldy, 2007, p.40; Adamson, 2007, p.4)
Yarn spinning, handloom weaving, sewing, tailoring Discipline or practice-based knowledge (Dormer, 1997, pp.7, 18; Adamson, 2007, pp.3, 10; Niedderer and Townsend, 2010, pp.3, 4)
Wickerwork, textiles, carpentry, ceramics, silverware
C ategory of fixed sets of objects
(Adamson, 2007, pp.3 -4 ) Basketry, textiles and garments, furniture, home decoration and accessory, tableware, jew ellery Practical expression
of social life
(Lucie-Smith, 1981, p.7) Sense o f individuality and responsibility of a craftsperson and his/her role in society
Element involved in cultural practice and production
(Adamson, 2007, p.2; Adamson, 2010, p.3)
Architecture, painting, sculpture, artisanal products, traditional ceremonies, traditional dress Means o f human and
social developm ent
(Adamson, 2007, pp.5, 69) Human developm ent through skilled work and relationship with materiality
Social m ovement towards changes in production, such as changing from handmade to machine-made, from cottage work to industrial factory work
Adam son (2010, p.1), in reference to Moxon (1677), says that craft cannot merely be
explained through written words or sentences because of the inadequacy of words to convey
true m eanings or to judge craft-making. Adamson notes that craft goes beyond disciplinary
fram eworks (2010, p. 10) or a fixed set of disciplines (2010, p.2) or categories (2007, p.4) - all
of which are purposely created fo r “dividing up the world o f production" o f goods for particular
Besides defining or describing what craft and handicraft mean, scholars also suggest that it is
necessary to understand its nature. Craft has characteristics of diplomacy, which can provide
solutions to difficult situations in society and help to correct them or moderate radical ideas
(lhatsu, ed. by Harrod, 1997, p.304). Craft embraces a tendency to self-restriction between
the basic and the extreme and conveys essential hum anity (lhatsu, ed. by Harrod, 1997,
p.304). Craft is m edium -specific (Metcalf, 1993, ed. by Alfoldy, 2007, p.5) in relation to
process and materials (Adamson, 2007 p. 1), yet flexible - an attribute that has enabled craft
to persist over a long period of time (Niedderer and Townsend, 2010, p.4), and fluid and
relative (Adamson, 2010, p.2).
■ Handicraft
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), Bangkok
office initiated The Award of Excellence Programme in 2001, namely the “UNESCO Award o f
Excellence for Handicrafts" and defined the term “handicrafts” as encompassing a wide range
of production techniques, purposes and appearances. This is not limited to objects that
comprise “everything” handmade. Handicrafts are described as follows:
“These can be defined as products, which are produced either completely by hand
o r with the help o f tools. Mechanical tools m ay be used as long as the direct m anual
contribution o f the artisan remains the m ost substantial com ponent o f the finished
product. Handicrafts are made from raw materials and can be produced in unlim ited
numbers. Such products can be utilitarian, aesthetic, artistic, creative, culturally
attached, decorative, functional, traditional, religiously and socially sym bolic and
significant.” (UNESCO Bangkok, 2001)
3.1.1.3 Ways to view craft for research purposes
The notion of craft and handicraft can vary according to purpose. Adamson (2007, p.1)
reveals that a majority of craft literature is written for “promotional” purposes, while some is
written in the context of “critical” discourse; only a few examples are written from a “historical”
perspective; and not m any deal with “theoretical” terms (craft as an idea).
Breslin and Buchanan (2008, cited in Roworth-Stokes, 2012, p. 1643) suggest that case
studies can bridge the gap between “the developm ent of theory and practice” , yet case
studies appear rarely in design education (which often includes contemporary craft). In an
audit of design journals for a number of case studies classified by subject, Roworth-Stokes
(2012, p. 1638) finds that “contemporary crafts/textiles” is an area with only a few cases
represented (3 out of 121), while “Architecture/built environm ent” and “Product design” cases
represented nearly half o f the total number (57 combined).
This finding suggests there is a disproportionately low number of craft case studies in an
educational context and in theory building (Roworth-Stokes, 2012, p .1643). A growing number
of researchers from various disciplines are looking into the craft field (Niedderer and
Townsend, 2010, p.3). In an international context, craft is discussed in relation to various
subjects as follows (see Section 3.1.2 for further information):
■ The progressive theory of history,
■ Critical discourses and thematic terms;
■ Business operation;
■ M anufacturing and industrial economic activities;
■ Creative industry and creative economy.
For the purpose o f research associated with craft, scholars suggest considering craft as a
contem porary discipline/concept and/or process that allows craft to connect with a wide range
of activities.
Craft as a contem porary discipline/concept is in fact a subject of research into “processes,
m aterials and skills” in relation to “technological challenges”, “aesthetic judgem ent” and
"cultural context”; these could offer a creative vision for the future, especially in the
implem entation of sustainability, which involves various elements of society, econom ics and
the environment (Niedderer and Townsend, 2010, pp.3 -4 ).
Craft as a process (Adamson, 2007, p p .3 -4 ) is concerned with sm all-scale production
practice (Adamson, 2007, pp.3 -4 ). Process connects craft to a wide range of activities
including architecture, painting, printing, sculpture, designing prototypes, digital rendering,
routines of m aintenance and repair, couture, gardening, cookery, factory work, construction
work and more (Adamson, 2010, pp.2 -3 ).
3.1.2 Classifications of crafts
Craft in an international context is discussed in relation to various subjects, i.e. history
(Section 3.1.2.1), critical discourses (Section 3.1.2.2), business operation (Section 3.1.2.3),
manufacturing and industrial econom ic activities (Section 3.1.2.4), the creative industry and
the creative econom y (Section 3.1.2.5). “Classification provides certainty” and can help to
draw out the understanding of a subject (Niedderer and Townsend, 2010, p.5). Yet craft (as
thinking or doing) can transcend to various subjects; so a variety of craft classifications exist
and it is not easy to discuss craft from a fixed set of classifications (Adamson, 2007, pp.4, 6).
3.1.2.1 Crafts classified by the progressive theory of history
From a Western perspective, genres of craft consortiums from past to present can be broadly
classified into three main groups: (i) traditional craft; (ii) contemporary craft; (iii) craft in
modernity (Adamson, 2007; Forrest cited in Alfoldy, 2007, foreword).
■ Traditional craft conveys a series of multicultural societies and histories in the
form of objects which are limited to or suggested by tradition (Metcalf, 1993, ed.
by Alfoldy, 2007, p.6). Sometimes scholars use alternative terms (i.e. “handicraft”
(lhatsu, ed. by Harrod, 1997, p.303), “traditional handicraft” (Humphreys, 1999,
p.58), "handcrafted” (Botnick and Raja, 2011, p.50)) to mean traditional craft.
■ Contem porary craft is guided by art and/or design to combine aesthetics,
individuality, function, custom er service, problem-solving, rational analysis and
technology (lhatsu, ed. by Harrod, 1997, p.303). Other craft term s that fall into
the contem porary group are: “arts and crafts” or “art-craft” , “craft and design” or
“craft-design”, “fine crafts" (Lucie-Smith, 1981; Harrod, 1997; Adamson, 2010),
“studio crafts”2 (Dormer, 1997, p.7), “conventional craft”3 (lhatsu, ed. by Harrod,
1997, p.302) and “industrial craft” 4 (Williamson, 1956; Yanagi, 1972, ed. by
Adamson, 2010, p .168).
■ Craft in m odernity is the transformation of craft within the process of
modernization; it is a means of articulating thinking into action amid the two
paradoxical cultural strands of “m odernity” 5 and “tradition” (Adamson, 2010,
pp.4 -5 ). It is craft that continues in association with issues of modernity (Alfoldy,
2007, p.xiv), e.g. the global context, political economy, utopian ideals and new
technologies (Forrest cited in Alfoldy, 2007, p.xiv).
3.1.2.2 Crafts in critical discourses and thematic terms
Besides the three broad categories mentioned above, a number of craft terms are also
discussed in the scholarly literature within the specific contexts of craft developments in
different continents (i.e. Europe, America, Africa and Asia). This literature review is inevitably
limited to work which has been translated into English. These terms are presented in groups
as follows:
2 Studio crafts cover the activities of every craftsperson who practices a craft medium to produce