The development of GI law at an international level started with the Paris Convention of 1883. Since its creation it has gone through a number of revisions.7 Among other protected subject matter, it included ‘indications of source or appellations of origin’. It protected industrial property in general. It stated that: ‘the protection of industrial property has as its object patents, utility models, industrial designs, trademarks, service marks, trade names, indications of source or appellation of origin (AOs), and the repression of unfair competition.’8
The Paris Convention provides for a clear distinction between trademarks and GIs in terms of the protection given to trademarks under Article 1(2) which includes indications of source or AOs and trademarks.9 However, it does not define ‘indications of source’ or ‘appellations of origin’.10 The Convention defines industrial property broadly. It states that ‘industrial property shall be understood in the broadest sense and shall apply not only to industry and commerce proper, but likewise to agricultural and extractive industries and to all manufactured or natural products, for example, wines, grain, tobacco leaf, fruit, cattle, mineral waters, beer, flowers and flour’.
Further under Article 6,11 trademarks may be invalidated when they are:
7 WIPO, ‘Summary’ <http://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/ip/paris/summary_paris.html> accessed 1 August 2014. ‘The Paris Convention, concluded in 1883, was revised at Brussels in 1900, at Washington in 1911, at The Hague in 1925, at London in 1934, at Lisbon in 1958 and at Stockholm in 1967, and it was amended in 1979.’
8 Article 1(2) Paris Convention states that: ‘the protection of industrial property has as its object patents, utility models, industrial designs, trademarks, service marks, trade names, indications of source or appellations of origin, and the repression of unfair competition.’
9 Paris Convention, Article 1(2). See also O’Connor (n 1) 28.
10 Nair, LR and Kumar, R, Geographical Indications, A Search for Identity (LexisNexis Butterworths 2005) 13. ‘The Paris Convention does not use the term “geographical indications” but it is the first multilateral agreement which provided protection of “indications of source” and “appellations of origin”.’
11 Paris Convention, Article 6 (quinquies)(B)(2).
107 [D]evoid of any distinctive character or consist exclusively of signs or indications which may serve, in trade, to designate the kind, quantity, quality, intended purpose, value, place of origin, of the goods, or the time of production, or have become customary in the current language or in the bona fide and established practices of the trade of the country where protection is claimed.
The term ‘indications of source’ was included within the Paris Convention ‘on the basis of collective reputation protection’.12 Ladas explains this protection as the ‘common right to use the name of a place … by all the producers, manufacturers, or traders of, and the right of these persons to exclude others from the use of the same name’.13 Recognising this valuable collective reputation in ‘indications of source’, the Paris Convention provided for collective marks under Article 7bis.14
12 See Dev Gangjee, Relocating the Law of Geographical Indications (Cambridge University Press 2012) 40. ‘The “indications of source” differ here from trademarks because of two aspects. Firstly, there is collective ownership for ‘indications of source’ and they are used by only those who are from designated place. Secondly, ‘indications of source’ indicate geographical signs which are descriptive and prima facie make it unsuitable for a trademark to be registered under trademark registration rules.’
13 See S Ladas, Patents, Trademarks and Related Rights (Harvard 1975) 36, 158. See also GD Cushing,
‘On Certain Cases Analogous to Trade Marks’ (1891) 4 Harvard Law Review 321; Gangjee (n 12) 39, 40. According to Gangjee, ‘by the close of the nineteenth century, indications of source were placed in the conceptual category of unregistered designation protection alongside trade names.’ Ladas opines that, ‘Trade marks are only one means of distinguishing the goods of one producer from those of another and generally, of protecting advantageous business relations. This end may also be served by the trade name of a producer, by the indication of the place of origin of his product or by any other distinctive badge.’
14 Paris Convention, Article 7bis defines collective marks as follows:
‘(1) The countries of the Union undertake to accept for filing and to protect collective marks belonging to associations the existence of which is not contrary to the law of the country of origin, even if such associations do not possess an industrial or commercial establishment. (2) Each country shall be the judge of the particular conditions under which a collective mark shall be protected and may refuse protection if the mark is contrary to the public interest. (3) Nevertheless, the protection of these marks shall not be refused to any association the existence of which is not contrary to the law of the country of origin, on the ground that such association is not established in the country where protection is sought or is not constituted according to the law of the latter country.’
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It is the first international agreement in the field of intellectual property law which granted ‘national treatment’ for foreigners.15 Under Article 4(A)1,16 the Paris Convention provided for ‘minimum substantive standards for its protection … however, a well-recognised limitation is the variable implementation of its substantive standards at the national level’.17
With regard to protection of GIs under the Paris Convention, Article 10(1) provides for seizure upon importation with respect to goods bearing false indication of the source of the goods or the identity of the producer.18 It states that, ‘the provisions of the preceding Article shall apply in case of direct or indirect use of a false indication of the source of the goods or the identity of the producer, manufacturer, or merchant.’19
15 Paris Convention, Article 2 on the ‘National Treatment for Nationals of Countries of the Union’
states that: ‘(1) Nationals of any country of the Union shall, as regards the protection of industrial property, enjoy in all the other countries of the Union the advantages that their respective laws now grant, or may hereafter grant, to nationals; all without prejudice to the rights specially provided for by this Convention. Consequently, they shall have the same protection as the latter, and the same legal remedy against any infringement of their rights, provided that the conditions and formalities imposed upon nationals are complied with. (2) However, no requirement as to domicile or establishment in the country where protection is claimed may be imposed upon nationals of countries of the Union for the enjoyment of any industrial property rights. (3) The provisions of the laws of each of the countries of the Union relating to judicial and administrative procedure and to jurisdiction, and to the designation of an address for service or the appointment of an agent, which may be required by the laws on industrial property are expressly reserved.’
16 Paris Convention, Article 4(a)1 states that: ‘any person who has duly filed an application for a patent, or for the registration of a utility model, or of an industrial design, or of a trademark, in one of the countries of the Union, or his successor in title, shall enjoy, for the purpose of filing in the other countries, a right of priority during the periods hereinafter fixed.’
17 See Gangjee (n 12) 24. See Paris Convention Article 1 (definition of industrial property); Article 9 (sanctions including seizure on importation); Article 1 (proscription against false indications); Article 10bis (unfair competition) and Article 10ter (standing to initiate proceedings and remedies). See also GHC Bodenhausen, Guide to the Application of the Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property (Bureau de l’Union 1968) 15. Paris Convention leaves ‘considerable freedom to the countries of the Union to legislate on questions of industrial property according to their interests or preferences’.
18 Michael Blakeney, ‘Geographical Indications and TRIPS’ in Michael Blakeney and others, Extending the Protection of Geographical indications (Earthscan 2012) 10.
19 The preceding Article referred to here is Article 9 of the Paris Convention. Article 9 deals with
‘Seizure, on Importation, etc., of Goods Unlawfully Bearing a Mark or Trade Name.’ It states that: ‘(1) All goods unlawfully bearing a trademark or trade name shall be seized on importation into those countries of the Union where such mark or trade name is entitled to legal protection. (2) Seizure shall likewise be effected in the country where the unlawful affixation occurred or in the country into which the goods were imported. (3) Seizure shall take place at the request of the public prosecutor, or any other competent authority, or any interested party, whether a natural person or a legal entity, in conformity with the domestic legislation of each country. (4) The authorities shall not be bound to effect seizure of goods in transit. (5) If the legislation of a country does not permit seizure on
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At the time of importation, seizure of the goods or the prohibition of importation and seizure within the country are the available remedies against the unlawful use of an indication of source under the Paris Convention.20 With regard to ‘interested parties’
applying to competent authorities for seizure of the goods,21 Article 10(2) of the Paris Convention states that:
Any producer, manufacturer, or merchant, whether a natural person or a legal entity, engaged in the production or manufacture of or trade in such goods and established either in the locality falsely indicated as the source, or in the region where such locality is situated, or in the country falsely indicated, or in the country where the false indication of source is used, shall in any case be deemed an interested party.
On the face of it, Article 10 of the Paris Convention does not use the term AOs.
However, this is covered by the expression ‘indications of source’ because the Paris Convention gives both expressions the same treatment and AO at a minimum constitutes an indication of source.22
Further, protection is also available under Article 10bis of the Paris Convention which binds member countries to provide protection against unfair competition.23 The
importation, seizure shall be replaced by prohibition of importation or by seizure inside the country. (6) If the legislation of a country permits neither seizure on importation nor prohibition of importation nor seizure inside the country, then, until such time as the legislation is modified accordingly, these measures shall be replaced by the actions and remedies available in such cases to nationals under the law of such country.’
20 Paris Convention (n 19).
21 Under Article 9(3), request for seizure can be made by the ‘public prosecutor, or any other competent authority, or any interested party, whether a natural person or a legal entity, in conformity with the domestic legislation of each country’.
22 See JT McCarthy and VC Devitt, ‘Protection of geographical denominations: domestic and international’ (1979) 69 TMR 199. See also O’Connor (n 1) 30.
23 Article 10bis (1) of the Paris Convention deals with unfair competition. It states:
‘1) The countries of the Union are bound to assure to nationals of such countries effective protection against unfair competition. 2) Any act of competition contrary to honest practices in industrial or commercial matters constitutes an act of unfair competition. (3) The following in particular shall be prohibited:
(i) all acts of such a nature as to create confusion by any means whatever with the establishment, the goods, or the industrial or commercial activities, of a competitor; (ii) false allegations in the course of trade of such a nature as to discredit the establishment, the goods, or the industrial or commercial activities, of a competitor; (iii) indications or allegations the use of which in the course of trade is liable to mislead the public as to the nature, the manufacturing process, the characteristics, the suitability for their purpose, or the quantity, of the goods.’
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implementation of unfair competition varies noticeably in form and effect across jurisdictions.24 This is contended by Nims. According to him:
[T]he law of unfair competition has developed in part also in response to a general feeling that the honest and fair-dealing merchant is entitled to the fruits of his skill and industry, and must be protected against loss caused by fraudulent and unfair methods used by business rivals. It is recognition by the courts of the duty to be honest and fair in all relations of business life … The gradual judicial development of this doctrine is an embodiment of the principles of sound common sense and business morality although it involves nice discriminations between what may not be done in honourable business rivalry.25
Under Article 19, the Paris Convention of 1883 provided the countries of the Union with the right to make special agreements with regard to protection.26 It was an important article in the sense that the Madrid Agreement27 and the Lisbon Agreement28 were concluded in pursuance of this Article.29