Both ‘knowledge’ and ‘learning’ pay significant roles within an organisational learning. Easterby-Smith and Lyles (2005, p.3) argue that ‘the distinction between ‘learning’ and ‘knowledge’ seems fairly obvious: ‘knowledge’ being the stuff (or content) that the organisation processes, and ‘learning’ being the process whereby information technology requires this stuff (knowledge)’. The relationship between learning and knowledge as Vera and Crossan (2005, p.123) point out that, ‘learning is the process through which knowledge is created and developed. Current knowledge impacts future learning’.
Hislop (2009, p.19); and Nonaka et al. (2005, 25) explain two types of knowledge: explicit knowledge and tacit knowledge. Explicit knowledge (scientific facts) can be expressed in formal and systematic language and shared in the form of data or scientific formulae. It can be processed, transmitted and stored relatively easily. On the contrary, tacit knowledge is difficult to articulate in an explicit form, being embedded within the cultural values and assumptions of those who possess and use it. Explicit knowledge is objective and typically prioritized over tacit knowledge, which is subjective. In this study, tacit knowledge in the form of local knowledge will be discussed in the next section.
Many writers, as cited in the work of Hislop (2009, p.33, p.35, p.39); Cook and Brown, 1999; Gherardi (2000, p.218); and Blackler (1995, p.1023) claim that ‘the
characteristics of knowledge from the practice-based perspective or an
‘epistemology of practice’ (Cook and Brown, 1999) are: knowledge is embedded in practice; tacit knowledge and explicit knowledge are inseparable; knowledge is embodied in people, socially constructed, culturally embedded, and contestable’ (Hislop, 2009, p.34).
To begin with, knowledge is embedded in practice. All knowledge activities (knowing and doing) such as working, using, sharing, developing, or creating it, all is extended knowledge. Gherardi (2000, p.218) indicates that ‘practice’
connects ‘knowing’ with ‘doing’. In the same way, Blackler (1995, p.1023), summed up, ‘Rather than regarding knowledge as something that people have, it is suggested that knowing is better regarded as something they do’. The next characteristic is that tacit and explicit knowledge cannot be considered separately because all knowledge contains elements of both tacit and explicit knowledge. There are no such things as pure tacit or pure explicit knowledge.
Further, knowledge is embodied in people because they develop their knowledge by performing activities and gaining experience. Thus, knowledge still remains in the heads and bodies of those who developed and possess it.
The socially constructed and culturally embedded characteristics are two factors of the nature of knowledge that can come together. They imply that all knowledge is socially constructed in nature, open to interpretation and production and inseparable from the values of those who produce it.
The culturally embedded characteristic can be seen in the way of meanings people attach to language and events are shaped by the values and assumptions
of the social and cultural context in which they live and work. Finally, knowledge is contestable; since of knowledge, as stated above, is by nature subjective, socially constructed and culturally embedded, it is open to argument and may lead to conflict when different groups or individuals develop incompatible analyses of the same events (Hislop, 2009, p.38, pp.40-41).
1. Global Knowledge (GK)
The terms ‘global knowledge’ or ‘scientific knowledge’ refer to knowledge in a globalised world. Tinnaluck (2005) gives more details about scientific knowledge as global knowledge: this knowledge is derived from hypotheses and scientific methods. Studies have been made in laboratories or with scientific or mathematical models. As the knowledge is produced and carefully documented, it can be taught via a formal education system and transmitted in written form via an academic and schooling system.
Dieter and Evers (2003) also explain that, ‘this kind of knowledge is governed, managed, monopolized or shared and widely accessible through the internet.
Professor Thomas Rosswall, Executive director of ICSU notes the role of science in addressing the goals of sustainable development: ‘scientific knowledge and appropriate technologies are central to resolving the economic, social and environmental problems that make current development paths unsustainable’
(ICSU, 2002, p.3). From the above meaning, we can say that nowadays global knowledge or scientific knowledge plays an important role in educating people all over the world. It has become the main knowledge which is provided for children in the education institutions around the world. In Thailand, the Office
of the Education Council, Ministry of Education states that education in the globalised world or global knowledge is required to provide individuals with learning skills, self-management ability, problem solving skills, ICT literacy, language proficiency and the ability to work with others (Office of the Education Council, 2008, p.4). Global knowledge or scientific knowledge as education in Thailand first arrived during the reign of the present Chakri Dynasty. Information on education in Thailand will be provided later.
2. Local Knowledge (LK)
The phrase local knowledge has the same meaning as indigenous knowledge (IK), traditional knowledge (TK), local wisdom (LW), folk knowledge, rural people’s knowledge, folk science and citizen science, traditional ecological knowledge (TEK), rural peoples’, farmers’ knowledge ethnobiology, ethnobotany, ethnozoology , ethnoscience, folk science, and indigenous science (Ellen, 2003; Sillitoe, 2002; UNESCO, 2010).
Three terms that represent this knowledge, which are used worldwide, are Indigenous Knowledge (IK), Traditional Knowledge (TK), and Local Wisdom (Knowledge) (LW/LK). Here are some definitions of all of them: Grenier (1998, p.1)defines Indigenous Knowledge as ‘the unique,traditional, local knowledge existing within and developed around specific conditions of women and men indigenous to a particular geographic area’ (Grenier, 1998). As Cheng (2003, p.6) notes, ‘local knowledge is the knowledge that has been tested valid in a local context and accumulated by the local community or people’ (Cheng, 2003).
According to UNESCO (2011), local and indigenous knowledge is a cumulative
and complex body of knowledge, know- how, practices and representations that is maintained and developed by peoples with extended histories of interactions with the natural environment.
In this study the term ‘Local Knowledge (LK)’ is used to mean ‘Traditional knowledge (TK)’ and ‘Indigenous knowledge (IK)’. This is because the term LK is easily applied to a variety of contexts, not only among rural people but also all communities, urban, settled and nomadic, original inhabitants and migrants who possess sophisticated sets of knowledge, whilst TK implies that people living in rural areas are isolated from the rest of the world and their knowledge system is static and does not interact with other knowledge systems. IK emphasizes attachment to place and establishes a link with indigenous people that has a negative or an ethnic and political connotation in some countries (FAO, 2004; ICSU/UNESCO, 2002)
3. The Role and Importance of Global Knowledge to Education and Learning
Education is one of the basic human needs. It occurs in human society and its process begins at birth and continues throughout life. Education has a significant effect on human life because it provides knowledge for people and facilitates their development into responsible, thoughtful and enterprising citizens. According to Durkheim, as cited in Giddens (2006), the school is an important socializing agency. Education plays an important role for children in their social education, such as giving them an understanding of the common values in society, which include religious and moral beliefs. It also enables them
to internalize the social rules that contribute to the functioning of society (Giddens, 2006).
Due to this importance, UNESCO participates in helping countries develop holistic education systems and building dynamic knowledge societies. It has worked to improve education worldwide, believing it to be the key to social and economic development. The role of education and its development is poverty reduction, the promotion of universal human values and tolerance, and the promotion and integration of new information and communication technologies in society. Education should be a means to empower children and adults alike to become active participants in the transformation of their societies (UNESCO, 2011). UNESCO launched Education for All (EFA) aiming for it to be achieved by the year 2015.
In the same way, The World Bank is also giving more priority to education as a key to achieving the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and as a powerful driver of the development of individuals and societies. The World Bank has invested $69 billion in education in the last 50 years. The Education Strategy of The World Bank focuses on Learning for All, through investing early, investing smartly, and investing for all (The World Bank, 2011)10.
Thailand became the 43rd member of The World Bank on May 3rd, 1949, and is a country in the East Asia and Pacific Group whose education system is supported by The World Bank. Through partnership with the World Bank,
10 The World Bank; Education
http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTEDUCATION/0,,contentMDK:20040939
~menuPK:282393~pagePK:148956~piPK:216618~theSitePK:282386,00.html (Accessed: 8 August 2011).
Thailand has improved its education system. To begin with, it is increasing the supply of technical manpower and the construction of schools, learning centres in remote areas, and colleges; then, to improve educational management, it is addressing curriculum reform, and enhancing the quality of education. For example, in January 2010, The World Bank, in partnership with the Office of Higher Education Commission, organized a seminar to introduce the new report, ‘Towards a Competitive Higher Education System in a Global Economy,’ the latest in the Thailand Social Monitor series, which the World Bank initiated in 1999 as its contribution to the debate on Thailand’s social challenges and policy responses. This report reviews the strengths and weaknesses of Thailand’s higher education system, focuses on the important relationships between the private sector and higher education, and proposes policy options that could help the government prepare college graduates for an increasingly complex and globalized economy (The World Bank 2011)11.