Cook Islands educational policy currently promotes dual foci (Scott & Newport, 2012). Firstly, a human capital approach demanding improved literacy, numeracy and
development. Secondly, a focus on Taku Ipukarea Kia Rangatira, aimed at strengthening
students’ identity as Cook Islanders through the teaching of culture and language (Cook Islands Ministry of Education, 2007, 2010). I call this mix of western and indigenous curricula a dual curriculum as they are usually separated with a western education consisting of the core subjects (English, Mathematics, Science and Social Studies) dominating and the subject Maori sitting to the side teaching culture and language (Cook Islands Ministry of Education, 2002). The standing of each foci varies, depending upon education stakeholder influence. In schools it will fluctuate, dependent on leadership direction and more directly teacher preferences in the classroom. (Abbiss, 2011). Teaero (1999) argues the
indoctrination of teachers (even indigenous ones), with stylised western models of teacher training, can steer teaching programmes away from local culture. Moreover the demand by parents for a western education, in the belief that this is the best approach, to prepare their children for future jobs and careers is also a powerful force skewing curricula (Ogbu, 1982).
Neocolonial forces also continue to pervade classroom programmes to ensure a dominant western ideology pervades students thinking in what Sterling (2001) terms the hidden curriculum. A simple example will illustrate the point. Resilience can be defined in western economic terms as it is through the New Zealand Aid Programme (IDG) strategic plan (2012):
Events including the global economic crisis and abrupt changes in international energy and food prices, together with the likely impacts of climate change, have contributed to significant volatility in recent years. Such volatility underlines the importance of all countries investing in their future economic performance and increasing their resilience to such shocks. (p. 5)
In this scenario economic growth and the ability to improve GDP and people’s individual wages are used to define resilience in the Pacific. In contrast, many Pacific Islanders define resilience through traditional livelihoods and their ability to fish, take care of livestock and grow crops. Here a Pacific worldview defines core resilience through people’s ability to live off the land and the sea. Money is often seen as providing a secondary resilience (Gegeo, 1998; Maiava, 2001; O'Meara, 1990; Purdie, 1999; Regenvanu, 2009), While Pacific resilience may be more adversely affected by extreme weather events, which affect their ability to grow crops or catch fish, for example, it may be less affected by global economic and financial turndowns. If only a western education is provided students will tend to link resilience only to economic growth. However if a culturally responsive curriculum is
provided students, especially those on pa enua, will be better able to decide for themselves the importance of both types of livelihood resilience.
A change in focus from macro, top down, neoliberal development models to more hopeful post-development models could have flow on ramifications for the type of Cook Islands curriculum desired by stakeholders and provided to students. A number of questions would arise. Should Maori as a subject sit alone inside a larger western education system? Its key purpose being to teach students language and culture to strengthen identity and preserve culture. Alternatively, should IK and culture be recognised in the curriculum alongside western knowledge and technology as contributing at least equally to future Cook Islands notions of SD and sustainable livelihoods? It may be that a move away from a dual curriculum to a more integrated and inclusive curriculum is needed.
This research explores ESD as a vehicle through which hopeful post-development notions of SD might be explored. In the cross-cultural interpretation of resilience described above, a culturally responsive EasSD style ESD, as proposed by Sterling (2001), could be used to create a thinking space whereby students explore and decide for themselves what
constitutes resilience. Students can compare the relative importance of money, jobs, careers and financial capital against the food security that traditional livelihoods bound in custom and culture can provide. It may be that resilience is enhanced by a combination of the two. More generally, an EasSD approach might allow students the flexibility to think critically about the multitude of viewpoints on SD from technocentric to ecocentric that exist within and across cultures.
5.11
Summary
Development on Mangaia has largely focused on externally initiated, driven and funded economic development projects focused on agriculture, tourism and small business, many of which eventually fail. MIRAB has filled the gap providing valuable earnings for people and bolstering the domestic economy. Education has generally followed dual goals: a western education to upskill students for jobs, and to support the country’s economic growth objectives, and the teaching of Maori culture and language to strengthen students’ identity as Cook Islanders.
Mangaians frustrated with a falling population, which they believe is due to a lack of economic opportunity on the island, have made the call to lead their own development as
their ancestors did. The call is for development on Mangaia to be led by Mangaians for Mangaians (Te au Puna o Mangaia, 2014).
I explore this close relationship between development and education more fully in the context of life and schooling on Mangaia. In chapter 6, I describe Mangaians vision for SD. In chapter 7, I review how the current curriculum on Mangaia prepares, or does not
prepare, students to vision and strive to achieve this particular Mangaian vision of SD. I go on to propose, in detail, the parts of an EasSD curriculum that might be necessary to reflect hopeful post-development realties on Mangaia. In chapter 8, I offer a tentative EasSD pedagogy that could assist students in building an understanding of, and action competence in, SD to lead their own and their communities’ future sustainable