Los aspectos biográficos e institucionales más relevantes

The second model that I explored was the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM). Rather than the focus being on the kind of adoption environment required for change as underpinned in CBAM, this model deals with particular types of ICT and seeks to understand why users accept or reject ICT. Davis (1989) developed the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM). It was developed originally as an information systems theory to explain how people come to accept and use technology. TAM is used to anticipate the trustworthiness and acceptability of an ICT tool or system, such as online banking, and to determine if any changes to the system are required in order to make it acceptable to users. This model argues that the acceptability of an ICT system is determined by two main factors: perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use. TAM is now used in educational contexts to highlight the interconnected relationship between external and internal variables that interact to influence a teacher’s acceptance and integration of technology into their teaching practice. Davis asserted that, when individuals are trying to decide if they will use technology, they will be influenced by their perception of its usefulness and how easy it is to use. The perceived usefulness and ease of use are interconnected and ultimately influence the individual’s attitude towards and intention to use a specific tool (Chau & Hu, 2002; Davis, 1989).

TAM is built on Fishbein and Ajzen’s (1977) adaptation of the Theory of Reasoned Action, which proposes that actions are affected by behavioural intentions, which in turn are influenced by attitudes towards the action being taken and the subjective norms in play at the time. For example, a teacher might intend using ICT as a teaching tool with young children; however, their attitude towards this act will be influenced by their perception of the value of ICT for children. This behavioural intention will be influenced by the expectations and beliefs of others about the value of ICT as a teaching tool in the early childhood setting. These two concepts described by Chiou (1998), in the following terms:

The first component, attitude toward the act, is a function of the perceived consequences people associate with behaviour. The second component, subjective norm, is a function of beliefs about

the expectations of important referent others, and his/her motivation to comply with these referents. (p. 298)

Figure 2 below gives a pictorial illustration of these ideas.

Figure 2 Theory of Reasoned Action

Source: Davis, Bagozzi and Warshaw (1989).

The primary purpose of TAM is to provide an insight into the external variables, such as beliefs, including trust, attitudes and intentions that impact on an individual’s adoption of technology systems. Fundamental in this model are the concepts of perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use. Perceived usefulness is characterised as the extent to which a person believes that using technology will enhance their job performance, and perceived ease of use is characterised as the extent to which a person considers the ease of using ICT. TAM suggests that system use is directly determined by behavioural intentions of the user, which in turn are influenced by the user’s attitude towards using the system as well as the perceived usefulness of the system. Attitudes and perceived usefulness are also affected by perceived ease of use. A person’s predominant belief in the ease of engaging with technology has been shown to be a strong marker for an individual’s on-going use of technology (Legris, Ingham, & Collerette, 2003; Venkatesh, 2006; Venkatesh & Bala, 2008). Inherent in this model is the notion that, if an ICT system is hard to use, it is more than likely individuals will not consider it useful, which will influence the individual’s behavioural intention to use (or not to use) the system (Legris et al., 2003; Wu & Chen, 2005). TAM also assumes that perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use will be influenced by such external variables as the design characteristics of a system (Venkatesh & Bala, 2008).

In summary, this model claims that an individual’s behaviour is a direct result of their attitudes towards the expectations of a particular behaviour, and the social norms relating to that behaviour, and maintains behavioural intention. Combined with perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use, it can be used to predict or explain a person carrying out a conscious act, for example, choosing to use a particular technology (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980; Chau & Hu, 2002).

3.3.1 Strengths and Limitations of TAM

Marangunić and Granić (2015) contend there is a credible body of work undertaken using TAM since it was developed more than a quarter of a century ago and argue this clearly indicates its popularity in the research field of technology acceptance. Originating from the psychological Theory of Reasoned Action, TAM has emerged to become the key model in understanding the predictors of human behaviour towards potential acceptance or rejection of a technology. The strength of the model is confirmed by numerous studies emphasising its broad applicability to various technologies.

TAM has been used in a wide range of contexts that involve individuals using technology in their work and home life, including the introduction of telemedicine and e-commerce. For example, Chau and Hu (2002) used TAM to examine physicians’ acceptance of telemedicine. Chau and Hu describe telemedicine as, “… the use of IT to support healthcare services and activities via electronic transmission of information or expertise among geographically dispersed parties, including physicians and patients, in order to improve service effectiveness and resource allocation/utilization efficiently” (p. 298). Their research involved 38 physicians who represented 10 medical specialties or subspecialty areas in Hong Kong. Their overall findings indicated that TAM was a relevant model to gain an insight into individual physicians’ decisions about technology use. TAM provided them with a model to explore how health professionals used technology. Findings highlighted subtle differences in their respective technology acceptance decision- making, which impacted on their uptake of technology.

Pavlou (2003) used TAM to capture consumer acceptance of e-commerce technology. TAM appeared to be a useful model as e-commerce is technology driven. This research involved testing data from two empirical studies: the first, an exploratory study comprised of three experiential scenarios with 103 students; the

second, a confirmatory study used a sample of 155 online consumers. The findings highlighted the concepts of perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use in TAM were fundamental drivers of e-commerce acceptance. Pavlou indicated that these concepts were particularly important when considering the intentions of users of online transactions and could help developers of e- commerce systems to ensure they would gain user buy-in or acceptance of their particular system.

TAM’s systemic approach is becoming popular in some educational contexts to determine adoption of instructional mobile technology by lecturers and students. Huang, Lin and Chuang (2007) argue that TAM works effectively in terms of determining adoption of mobile learning by students. Their study involved 313 undergraduate and graduate students in two Taiwan universities in an online survey. The findings showed that perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use are key determinants of user perception of mobile learning. TAM’s generalisability across a wide range of technologies and contexts adds to its strength and validity as a model for analysing systems and gaining insight into user uptake of technology.

Although there is acknowledgement in the literature, some researchers are beginning to use TAM within educational contexts. Teo, Wong and Chai (2008) point out that TAM has been used extensively within business organisations, and there has been very little research undertaken on its use in education. They suggest that TAM is more relevant to business contexts due to the difference between the general technology users in such contexts and that of the use of technology by teachers.

Straub (2009) contends that TAM fails to capture the influences of technological change on relationships with teachers and students. One of the most prominent criticisms of TAM is that there is no opportunity to acknowledge individual difference in the adoption process; rather, it provides a universal approach to understanding how individuals engage with technology (Teo, Chai, et al., 2008; Van den Berg, 1993). For instance, the original TAM does not recognise the possible influence of gender, age or prior experience or many other characteristics

that may influence attitudes towards technology and the intention to use it (Legris et al., 2003; Straub, 2009).

Mathieson’s (1991) criticism of TAM was that, although it is easy to use, it generates only very general data on user options in IT systems. She also highlighted that TAM does not make any explicit connections to social variables, which are purported to be important as they can capture other aspects that are not included in the key concepts of perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use, such as people using a particular system as a way of impressing their co-workers and thus being perceived as sophisticated users of technology.

3.4 Substitution, Augmentation, Modification and Redefinition Model