With recommendation as the only method of recruit ment, Li Hung-chang was able to have a majority of the
appointees his mu-yu or friends. Technically, Li left the final selection of personnel to the Yamen thus avoiding implicating himself. Suitable qualified persons were
difficult to recruit because, partly, the diplomatic service was not regarded as an attractive appointment, secondly,
few officials had the qualification and experience suited for such a profession (see pp.
83,87
). However through the skilful way Li communicated to the Yamen the many requirements for the "suitable" candidate, we find that in22- Ibid., 1013-1020.
2 3
.
"Wai-wu-pu fu Liu tse" op. cit. , Tung-fang tsa-chih V o l . 4, no. 2, 1907. 15.most cases Li was able to have his friends or mu-yu 24
appointed.
In examining the political background or corre lation of the ministers to Japan to 1894, we may come to a clearer perception of Li's central position in diplomatic activities. The first minister Ho Ju-chang was recommended
25
by Kuo Sung-t'ao who was a close friend of Li. Both Kuo and Li were ex-mu-yu of Tseng Kuo-fan and shared many common views on matters of foreign affairs. Li Shu-ch'ang, the second minister was recommended by Marquis Tseng Chi-tse
26
so would not be expected to go against Li," The third minister Hsu Ch'eng-tsu had been a staff member of Ch'en
27 Lan-pin, Li's ex-mu-yu in Tseng Kuo-fan's mu-fu. The
fourth minister, Li Ching-fang was of course Li Hung-chang's
p3
adopted son. Finally Wang Feng-tsao the fifth minister 29
was a friend of Marquis Tseng.
III. Background and training of diplomats:
Like other governments embarking on the establish ment of a modern diplomatic service, the Chinese government
24. LV/CK:IS 6:27 25. WCSL 8:20-21.
26. LWCKCT 510, CKCJ no. 793.
27- Shu pao (Taipei, 196 5) October 23» 1884. 72. 28. LWCK:PL 17:44-45.
29. See "Wen-fa chü-yü hsu" in Tseng Chi-tse, Tseng Hui-min kung ch'uan-chi, wen-chi 2.
had no source of people specifically trained for diplomatic work. Before the establishment of the T'ung-wen kuan there was no institution in China which provided the training and education such diplomatic officers would need in foreign languages, international law. Hence the first ministerial appointees abroad had no professional training in diplomatic work. There were as yet no graduates from the T ’ung-wen kuan eligible for appointment as ministers. Since there was no set course of training for diplomats and no proper precedent as to the qualities required, at first the
selection had to be based on a personal assessment of what was required and of the suitability of particular candidates
for the Chinese foreign -service.
We have seen above how this situation was met by a reliance on recommendation. In view of the absence of a set of criteria it is interesting to see what kinds of men were in fact appointed to be ministers to foreign countries during the period of study.
The origins and educational background of ministers during the period of this study varied over time as did the reasons for their being appointed as ministers. In their background and training, however they do seem to have had certain things in common.
From 1875 to 1894 none had received any proper
training in language or law. Three-quarters of 20 ministerial appointees before 1894 were the "foreign affairs experts" who served under Tseng Kuo-fan and later Li Hung-chang
( a f t e r 1870) . They w e r e f r i e n d s o r e x - m u - y u o f L i Hung- c h a n g , who d e v o t e d t h e i r e n e r g i e s t o m a t t e r s o f s e l f s t r e n g t h e n i n g . T h e s e p o s t s u s u a l l y p r o v i d e d more c h a n c e 30 t o c o n t a c t W e s t e r n e r s a n d W e s t e r n c u l t u r e . Many o f t h e l a t e r a p p o i n t e e s w e r e men w i t h e x p e r i e n c e i n h a n d l i n g m o d e r n f a c i l i t i e s c r e a t e d by L i H u n g - c h a n g a n d o t h e r g o v e r n o r s who 31 s u p p o r t e d t h e s e l f - s t r e n g t h e n i n g m o v e m e n t . A l t h o u g h t h e g r e a t e r p a r t o f t h e m i n i s t e r i a l a p p o i n t e e s h a d t h e a f o r e m e n t i o n e d b a c k g r o u n d a n d t r a i n i n g a b o u t o n e - t h i r d o f m i n i s t e r i a l a p p o i n t e e s came f r o m a more o r t h o d o x b a c k g r o u n d a n d t r a i n i n g . T h e y f o l l o w e d t h e t r a d i t i o n a l c o u r s e , t a k i n g t h e o f f i c i a l e x a m i n a t i o n s , a t t a i n i n g t h e h i g h e s t l i t e r a r y d e g r e e , a n d o f f i c i a t i n g i n v a r i o u s p o s t s . 3 0 . F o r e x a m p l e s e e Kuo S u n g - t ' a o , M i n i s t e r t o E n g l a n d 1 8 7 3 - 1 8 7 8 , S h e n Y u n - l u n g , i n C h i n - t a i - w a i - c h i a o j e n - w u l u n - p ' i n 1 - 6 5 ; C h ' e n L a n - p i n , M i n i s t e r t o U . S . A . , S p a i n a n d P e r u , F o l s o m F r i e n d s , G u e s t s and C o l l e a g u e s ( B e r k e l e y a n d Los A n g e l e s , 1 9 6 8 7 , £ 8 , 7 5 - 7 8 ; Yung Wi ng, C h ' e n L a n - p i n ' s a s s o c i a t e , A r t h u r W. Hummel, e d . E m i n e n t C h i n e s e o f t h e C h ' i n g P e r i o d ( W a s h i n g t o n , 194-3) 4 0 2 - 4 o 4 , a n d Y o s h i h i r o H a t a n o , Chu go ku k i n d a i k o g y o s h i no k e n k y u 7 4 , 2 0 4 , L i F e n g - p a o , M i n i s t e r t o F r a n c e , G e r m a n y , I t a l y , H o l l a n d a nd A u s t r i a , P a w l i n s o n , J o h n L . , C h i n a ' s S t r U £ g l e _ f o r N a v a l D ev e l o p m e n t , 1 8 3 9 - 1895 ( C a m b r i d g e , M a s s . , 1 9 8 7 7 , 7 0 , 27*4; T s e n g C h i - t s e , M i n i s t e r t o E n g l a n d 1 8 7 8 - 1 8 8 5 , L i E n - h a n , T s e n g C h i - t s e t i w a i - c h i a o ( T a i p e i , 1 9 6 6 ) , 1 - 1 2 ; a n d f i n a l l y H s u e h F u - c h ' e n g i n Hummel, o p . c i t . 3 3 1 - 3 3 2 , a n d F o l s o m , o p . c i t . 1 3 5 - 1 3 6 . 3 1 . T h e s e a p p o i n t e e s i n c l u d e d Ch en g T s a o - j u , M i n i s t e r t o U . S . A . , S p a i n , P e r u 18 8 1 — 1 8 8 4 , L i u J u i - f e n , M i n i s t e r t o E n g l a n d 1 8 8 5 - 1 8 8 9 , Kung C h a o - y u a n , M i n i s t e r t o E n g l a n d 1 8 9 3 —1896 a n d Chang Y i n - h u a n , M i n i s t e r t o U . S . A . , P e r u a n d S p a i n 1 8 8 5 - 1 8 8 9 « F o r b i o g r a p h i e s s e e F o l s o m , op ._c i t . 1 7 4 - 1 7 5 , Hummel, op . c i t . 6 0 - 6 3 , 5 2 2 , Y o s h i h i r o H a t a n o , o p . c i t . 177 a n d S h en Y u n - l u n g , o p . c i t . 6 6 - 1 0 0 r e s p e c t i v e l y .
Then because of their attention to and keenness in studying statesmanship or current affairs they were recommended by
32
the Yamen for diplomatic posts. For example Hsu Ching- ch'eng (Minister to France, Germany, Italy, Holland and
Austria 1884-1896), Ho Ju-chang (Minister to Japan 1887-1891) and Hung Chun (Minister to Russia, Germany, Austria and
Holland 1887-1889) were all chin-shih in 1868. Hsu was selected a member of Hanlin Academy, and Ho was a compiler in Hanlin Academy, Both were recommended by Wen-hsiang for diplomatic posts because of their concern for current affairs, and their enlightened outlooks. Hung Chün was not just chin-shih but also chuang-yüan, and served in various posts before his diplomatic assignment, such as Educational Commissioner of Hupeh, Kiangsi and Chief Examiner at
provincial examinations in Shensi and Shantung, and Sub- Chancellor of the Grand Secretariat. There were also a few exceptional cases whose appointment was secured mainly through their personal connections with certain important officials in the court, and not by their experience or
33