Sumerall, Lopez and Oehlert (2000) define competency as involving:
information as well as skill in applying that knowledge (Stratford, 1994); and has
been defined in terms of three separate domains: what the individual brings to the job,
what the individual does in the job, and what is achieved (Proctor, 1991). Thus,
knowledge, performance, and outcome are essential features.
(Sumerall, Lopez and Oehlert 2000, p.4)
Sumerall et al (2000, p.8) also note that ‘competency-based education and training may
be used to justify a field’s existence, to ward off potential litigation, to keep in step with
current trends, or to better define necessary skills graduates should be able to perform.’
Hall and Jones (1976, p.29) define competency-based learning as those performances that
are based on the acquisition, integration, composite building, and application of a set of
related skills and knowledge. These performances entail a growth process, a gestalt
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According to the report on the 2006 Strategic Planning Retreat, VTC plans to use the
Qualification Framework (QF) and its associated Specifications of Competency
Standards (SCSs) (industry-sector specific competencies and generic competencies) as
the primary reference for curriculum development so as to enhance the competitiveness
of the VTC HD programmes (VTC 2006d, p.2). Sumerall, Lopez and Oehlert (2000,
p.5) discuss how an expert is needed to set appropriate competencies. Competencies
should be contained and practical, and based on the advice of established experts who can
review competencies within the context of change. They design competency standards in
accordance with functional areas, such as accounting competencies designed for the
Higher Diploma course in Accounting. When setting these standards, the designer should
identify special tasks in accordance with functional areas and design simulated activities
to engender familiarity with particular professions. According to Arter (2001, p.83), the
design should improve as well as judge students’ performance, as follows:
1. The performance target should be clear and unaltered, providing an instructional
target for the teacher and a learning target for the students.
2. There should be no “mystery” regarding performance expectations and the criteria
by which students’ work will be judged.
3. The work samples equip students to more accurately self-assess and improve their
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According to Sumerall, Lopez and Oehlert (2000),
Training to competency at the knowledge level would include providing literature,
training seminars as needed, and test/retest opportunities. Methods for training to
competence at the skill level could include reviewing audio/video-tapes of the trainee
with clients. Supervisors could provide ongoing assessment of tapes until
competency is routinely achieved. (Sumerall, Lopez and Oehlert 2000, p.31)
Performance standards should be set and feedback relating to strengths and weaknesses
provided so students know whether they have achieved the required competencies.
The particular training to competency is modeled around what competencies are needed
to be enhanced. Different competency standards need to be applied in different profession
settings. In the UK, national, qualification-driven competency-based systems are based
on standards defined by industry (Fletcher 2000, p.3). This indicates that competency
standards should be derived from industry itself and be designed as performance
indicators relating to certain courses or activities. Sumerall, Lopez and Oehlert (2000,
p.13) discusses competency-based education and training in professional psychology
(Peterson et al., 1991) as having the following nine competency areas:
• Training in basic psychological knowledge • Training in relationship building
• Training in assessment • Training in intervention
54 • Training in research
• Training in consultation and education • Training in supervision
• Training in advanced clinical skills • Training in ethics and attitudes
(Sumerall, Lopez and Oehlert 2000, p.13-15)
All above training modules are tasks-oriented and are related to the duties required in the
workplace. This supports ideas explored in Fletcher’s (2000) qualification-drive
competence-based systems. Teaching strategies discussed by Sumerall et al.(2000),
including qualification-driven competency-based systems (comprising demonstration,
evaluation, feedback sessions, lectures, role models and practice exercises), can also be
adopted.
Once the scope of competencies is derived from industry, the next step is to assess
whether or not competencies have been achieved by the end of the training course
(Sumerall, Lopez and Oehlert 2000, p. 30). Harris et al. (1995, p.162) describe
competency-based assessment as a process of risk management requiring valid quality
assessment processes.
Assessment may be conducted by:
1. The individual themselves (if they do not know competent they are, then how
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2. By individual’s peers (this may include fellow students, workmates, and fellow
practitioners);
3. By ‘experts’ (including teachers, lecturers, trainers, supervisors and a variety of
other individuals)’ (Harris et al. 1995, p.176, cited in Marsh 1999)
Any on-going assessment of students’ performance indicates whether minimal
competency standards have been achieved. Skills and competency assessment is a
difficult task for educators due to the professional judgments involved. Weightman (1994)
addresses the crucial starting point of adopting competency based learning:
One common starting point for using competencies is to ensure that the personnel of
the organisation are competent in those areas which are important to the organisation.
Competencies is a methodical system for looking at the behaviour of individuals that
fits in with some of other systematic processes of management. It is conventional, and
seems appropriate if we want to be systematic, to start with the overall organisation
and then work through to the individual. (Weightman 1994, p. 28)
Experts play an important role in the successful implementation of competency-based
learning in college. Assessment is discussed in detail in section 2.9.