4 ¿QUÉ ES LA MODERNIDAD?
4. LOS "GRUNDRISSE"
Martin’s early years of vocal training provided her with a repertoire of popular soprano concert standards which highlighted her agile soprano voice, but did not sit well with the nightclub audiences who were expecting to hear the “low-downest” songs from the band singer. Martin’s solution to the problem resulted in a series of adaptions which crossed the classical-popular divide in both directions, encapsulating the transition from operettic styles to the more accessible popular forms in progress throughout musical theatre at this time. Martin opened each song in its original form, using classical
production techniques to place it firmly within the operettic style, before transitioning to swing style, taking advantage of her rich middle register. In her own words, she would “swing the be-daylights out of it. Just let them have it, trumpet noises coming from that refined soprano throat.” (Martin 1977, p 67)
Martin recorded five songs in this style for Decca over the 1938-9 Christmas/New Year period, just over a month after opening in Leave it to Me!. Accompanied by a young Woody Herman and His Orchestra, she gave the full “Charlie Bourne-Billy Hoffman- Mary Martin” treatment to “Il Bacio”, “Les Fille de Cadix”, “Who’ll Buy my
Violets”, “Listen to the Mocking Bird” and “Deep Purple”.205 All of these songs were a popular part of the coloratura soprano concert repertoire, and were frequently recorded by performers such as Marietta Piccolomini, Adelina Patti, Frieda Hempel, Amelita Galli Curci and Claudia Muzio.
“Il Bacio” is a virtuosic waltz written in 1859 by the Italian composer and violinist Luigi Arditi (1822-1903). It was popular as an instrumental and vocal concert piece throughout the second half of the nineteenth century and well into the twentieth century, and was a popular choice for recording. Several recordings from the early 1900s
survive, and its inclusion in the 1935 film Three Smart Girls, starring operatic prodigy Deanna Durbin is an example of its subsequent popularity. Three representative opening phrases from early acoustic recordings can be heard on CD track 4—1, recorded by Adelina Patti) in 1903, Alice Nielsen in 1908; and Frieda Hempel in
1914.206 These surviving pieces illustrate early-twentieth-century classical performance practice, featuring a fast tempo and the extensive use of rubato.207
The song had a performance style featuring a strictly coloratura opening before changing into hot swing later in the piece. Table 4—1 shows a comparison of an original edition with Martin's performance, illustrating the basic structural changes made to the piece for her adaption. Martin performs the first 72 bars with virtually no alteration to the written score, until the rhythm changes from waltz time to swing time, and the accompaniment changes from light classical to upbeat jazz ensemble playing. Several sections are omitted, ensuring the song stays within the two to three minute length required by popular recording practices.
205 Unfortunately I was unable to obtain Martin’s recording of “Deep Purple.” However, in her radio
appearance on the Rudy Vallee Show on the 2 February 1939, she introduces the song in operettic style before continuing in swing style with early elements of belting, firmly placing it within the
classical/swing crossover genre.
206 It is thought that Arditi wrote ‘Il Bacio’ for Patti and this recording was made very late in her career. 207 This has been well established by writers such as Robert Philip (1992), Timothy Day (2000), Daniel
Section (bar #) [new bar
#] Original Martin
I (1-72) —C Major —C Major
II (73-89) —F Major Omitted
III (90-104) [73-80] —F Major
—F MajorIV (105-120) Instrumental Omitted
V (121-162) —B Major Omitted
VI (163-178) —G Major Omitted
VII (179-194) [81-88] —C Major
—C Major (textchange)208
VIII (195-208) —C Major Omitted
Coda (209-236) [89-107] —C Major
—C MajorTable 4—1: Structural Comparison of original “Il Bacio” and Martin’s version of “Il Bacio”, indicating the sections omitted by Martin and time signature changes.209
The new duple time signature gives Martin the freedom to play with different rhythm over the regular pulse. She provides a great deal of rhythmic colour by anticipating beats, syncopation and the use of triplets, and creates tension by straightening rhythms as the band swings them. The effect is one of vocal freedom, heightened by her
208
From “Se potessi dolce’un bacio ti darei” (If I could I would give you sweet kisses) to “Se potessi mille gaudii ti darei” (If I could I would give you one thousand joys).
209 The original melody corresponding to the shorter version and a transcription of Martin’s performance
occasional use of scat210 syllables rather than an open vowel in bars 16-17 and bar 20. This small addition however, even more than the few changes of timbre, signals the song’s change from classical genre into jazz. Despite this, Martin performs most of the song in her head voice, with just a few changes to belt-style chest voice, and then only when the pitch is below C5.
The main phonation changes are found in the first two phrases of section III, bars 1-8 of the transcription, where Martin sings the first falling motif of each phrase in her head voice, and the second in a conversational chest voice. The end of this section is the first opportunity to observe Martin’s passaggio between her chest and head phonation as she sings a scale from B3 to F5. Spectrogram 4—1 shows Martin beginning the scale in a light chest voice. As she moves up the scale the resonance of the tone shifts to the fundamental, but the change sounds awkward until Martin reaches A4, at which point it regains stability. On the final note she tunes the first and second formants of the vowel to the fundamental and the second partial to create a strong finish.
The transcription of bars 16-18 in Figure 4—1 shows the scat additions to the text, and Spectrogram 4—2 illustrates the contrast between Martin’s scat additions to the voice. The resonances of the first sustained tone sung in her chest voice are more characteristic of the speech values of the ‘a’ vowel sound. The relative amplitude of the second harmonic is 18 dB higher than the fundamental. This is consistent with the first formant tracking the second partial, and the second formant amplifying the third and fourth partials. It is also possible to see the third formant’s effect on the partials at the singer’s formant and above. Similarly, the much quieter sustained tone on the vowel ‘e’ is placed even closer to average speech values. When Martin changes to head voice, she tunes the first formant down to the fundamental and the second formant amplifying the
Figure 4—1: Transcription of the passage in Spectrogram 4—2. See also CD track 4—3.
210 Scat, the use of nonsense syllables with improvised melodies, was a relatively new phenomenon and
was very popular with jazz musicians. During the 1930s it also became popular with swing musicians including Bing Crosby. J. Bradford Robinson. "Scat singing." Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online. Oxford University Press. Last accessed September 12,
second partial.
In contrast to the immediate onset of her classical phonation, the onset of Martin’s vibrato is delayed in the belt style, and her vibrato rate (5.5 Hz) is slower than the consistent 6.2 Hz of her head voice. The extent of her vibrato also alters during chest phonation, widening to almost a semitone from the relatively constant half a semitone of her head phonation. From these examples it is clear that Martin was able to fully employ her vocal range and skills to bring a modern touch to her classical music. Martin perfected this technique in “Les Filles De Cadix”, a flirtatious bolero composed by Léo Delibes to words by Alfred de Musset, and one of the earliest coloratura soprano concert works recorded at the beginning of the twentieth-century. When Martin
recorded her adaption at the end of 1938, the song was very much in the public consciousness, having been performed by Jeanette MacDonald211 in the 1937 film Maytime and then by the sixteen-year-old Deanna Durbin212 in That Certain Age (1938). CD track 4—4 presents the opening phrases of five different recordings by Amelita Galli-Curci,213 Claudia Muzio,214 Deanna Durbin, Jeanette MacDonald and Mary Martin (from her 1938 Decca recording). Excepting Mary Martin, all of these
recordings are in F# minor and with similar tempos, although all employ a significant amount of rubato.
As the vocal techniques she employs in her classical/swing crossover performances require the use of a lower pitch to be successful, Martin performs in the published mezzo-soprano key of d minor. Her performance remains faithful to Delibes’ score, until the end of the first verse, where the time signature changed from three-four to alla breve. At this point, the brassy, military-style fanfare vocalizing of the final phrase, shown at Figure 4—2 is replaced by the jazz trumpet-styled transition at Figure 4—3215
The verse that follows mirrors the melodic contour of the original, but replaces the strict quaver rhythms, melismata, trills and glissandos of the coloratura with the yodels, vocal gymnastics and the rhythmic freedom of swing style. Martin slows the expected
211
This recording is of MacDonald at her peak.
212 Durbin was only 16 when she recorded this song. Her young voice, although mature for her age, is
obvious in its lack of support as she reaches her upper register.
213 This was taken from an original recording in the author’s collection, and was recorded between 1916
and 1923
214 This was recorded in 1935 for Columbia. Muzio’s top register was weakening and she did not attempt
the top C# at the end of the second verse. She died from heart failure the following year.
Figure 4—2: From the original Schirmer score military fan-fare rhythms. See also Music Example 4—2.
Figure 4—3: Martin’s transformation of the original rhythms to more contemporary jazz trumpet style. See also Spectrogram 4—2 and Music Example 4—3.
forward motion with intentionally straightened crotchets, before unexpectedly returning to a rhythm similar to that of the opening at bar 67.
As in “Il Bacio”, Martin remains in her head voice for most of the song, moving briefly into chest voice at the beginning of the swing section, , and dramatic wailing, downward diminished sevenths at bars 80-86. Spectrogram 4—3 and its accompanying CD tracks illustrate the dramatic contrast to the classical style of the song, which, like the scat rhythms in “Il Bacio”, transforms her performance to swing. In the lower Spectrogram Martin descends in a smoothly controlled portamento, that barely interrupts her vibrato. The upper Spectrogram illustrates her dramatic rallentando, tightly controlled slide and sudden change to chest phonation at the same point of the second refrain. A slight break in the upper partials indicates her sudden alteration of resonator shape that allows the change in timbre. As she moves up the scale in the concluding coda, Martin finishes in dramatic coloratura style over a swing accompaniment, reminding her audience of the classical origins of the work while anchoring it firmly to the present.
“La Violetera”, written by Spaniard Jose Padilla (1889-1960) with lyrics by Eduardo Montesinos, enchanted audiences throughout Europe and the United States with its exotic bolero rhythms and vocal embellishments. An English version by H. F. Best, bearing little relation to the original Spanish text, appeared in 1918, and further
the melody down a semitone from the original A major, set a second English text, renamed the song “Who’ll Buy My Violets?” and interpolated it into the musical Little Miss Bluebeard where it was performed by his wife, Irene Bordoni. In 1931, the melody reached an even wider audience when it featured in Charlie Chaplin’s film City Lights. Transposed lower for band singers, it became a nightclub and dance band standard. In 1936, Tommy Dorsey recorded an up-tempo, swing version of the song in the original A Major. CD track 4—7 includes excerpts from recordings by Spanish film star Raquel Meller,216 Lucrezia Bori,217 from City Lights and an anonymous band singer.
Martin combined the original and 1923 versions to create a hybrid interpretation of the song. Sung in D Major, Martin performed both the verse and first refrain in the original Spanish and in a classical vocal style. The orchestra played the second refrain in swing style, Martin’s return in the third refrain featured the English words by Goetz, and was also swung. 218 The final hot jazz coda has Martin sustaining a belted A4 above the accompaniment, transforming the song from light opera to swing and signalling Martin’s move away from the classical genres.
It is difficult to fully appreciate the changes Martin makes to this song through a simple examination of lyrics and rhythm. Although the song is a fifth lower than the original score, Martin remains in a rich head voice while singing in Spanish and makes little or no change to the rhythm. Spectrogram 4—4 shows the high relative amplitude of the first two partials as they are amplified by the lowered formant one and two. Martin changes to a low mixed voice for the third refrain, using a more classical phonation for sustained notes and a mix of chest and head voice for the shorter notes, shown in Figure 4—4.
The only other change in the third refrain is Martin’s use of swung duplets, which can be seen in Figure 4—5. Although she also increases rhythmic interest by interspersing straightened duplets within those alterations. Martin appears to move toward a more popular singing style for the English lyrics, but maintains a strong attachment to the classical style.
216
Decca Odeon-Parlophone 20619. Probably recorded in Europe in the 1920s but released later in the United States by Decca.
217 Victor records 1928.
Figure 4—4: Example of Martin in the third refrain shows the high relative amplitude of the second partial and the increased resonance of the third and fourth partial as they are
amplified by the lowered first and second formants
Figure 4—5: A comparison of the first and third refrains interspersing straightened duplets within those alterations as Martin appears to move toward a more popular singing
The range of “Who’ll Buy My Violets” is well within Martin’s developing belt phonation, but she only uses a strong belt in the final coda. Although this note is the same pitch as the example of her head voice in Spectrogram 4—4 the differences are readily apparent. Martin vibrato onset is slightly delayed in the second example, with a narrower extent, and the resonant structure of the tone is markedly different to that seen in the previous Spectrogram (see Spectrogram 4—5). The first formant is now
amplifying the second partial (see Figure 4—6), and the increased resonance of the upper partials adds a bright edge to the sound that is in direct contrast to the rest of the song, which has a much rounder, darker tone.
The change to Martin’s treatment of “Who’ll Buy My Violets?” added a new twist to the performance of the songs in the classical-swing crossover style. Both “Il Bacio” and “Les Filles des Cadix” were transplanted directly from the established light classical concert repertoire, with jazz rhythms and vocal treatments being added once the classical roots of the song were firmly established and Martin ending them by returning to the classical style. In contrast, “Who’ll Buy My Violets?” had already been widely adapted to more popular tastes and Martin takes advantage this familiarity, remoulding the song to suit her own reading of the classical-swing style.
Figure 4—6: Power spectrum of Martin using belt phonation in the final coda of the same pitch as the example of her head voice. The second partial is strongly amplified by the first formant, its relative amplitude more than 20 dB higher than the fundamental. See
Composed in the mid-nineteenth century, “Listen to the Mocking Bird” 219 became one of the most popular ballads of the time, selling over twenty million sheet music copies. Used as a marching song by both sides during the American Civil War; it became a standard in the theatres, albeit with an enormous variation in performance styles. It was particularly popular with specialty acts, and hillbilly bands, whistlers, romantic duets, black face minstrels, xylophones and banjos all played a part in its wide spread popularity. The song itself is a contradiction in that its tragic lyrics are juxtaposed against a lively melody. The verse has a gently lilting melody, characterised by rising thirds and fourths, and the refrain consists of rapid, repeated notes; all facets
reminiscent of the different components of the mockingbird’s call. Simple dominant- tonic harmony underpins both the verse and refrain, creating a comfortable forward motion. This is broken as the melody reaches its climax at the end of each phrase with the sudden addition of the subdominant, a change also characteristic of the
mockingbird.
Well-known opera soloists teamed with bird imitators to record the song. Alma Gluck, the first classical musician to sell one million copies of a recording, performed it with early conservationist and bird imitator Charles Kellogg in 1916. 220 Alice Green and Raymond Dixon recorded a romantic duet in 1923 with interpolations by Uintah Masterman.221 In 1921, soprano Marie Tiffany recorded the song with interpolations by Margaret McKee and the accompaniment of a close male chorus 222 (see CD track 4—10).
Martin performs the song in conversation with solo flute. Her version includes a series of variations based on the refrain, and includes an abundance of coloratura runs and trills. Rather than relying on the interpolation of bird calls, Martin utilises her vocal skill to develop the song’s relationship to the mockingbird. The first verse begins in a quietly genteel manner, with a sustained accompaniment of low horns and the
219 Music by Afro-American guitarist Richard Milburn and lyrics by Septimus Winner (under the
pseudonym Alice Hawthorne).
220 Charles Kellogg was a well-known bird imitator who travelled the US in a mobile home constructed
out of a hollowed out redwood tree.
221 Victor 19250-A 222
Brunswick’s New Hall of Fame Classic Series 13090-A. Maria Tiffany was a member of the Metropolitan Opera whose husband of over twenty years famously divorced her on the grounds of