Los medios y la opinión pública en educación

The preparation and analysis of the data took place in stages to produce layers of maps from both formal and VGI data: Firstly, a layering of the data was created with a multi-layered GIS mapping of the plots by uploading all the plot coordinates collected by GPS into the GIS software using a memory stick or connection cable. The other form of paper maps that had been created over satellite/aerial images or topographic maps were uploaded into the computer and then to GIS software to conduct the analysis. For this purpose, either on-screen digitizing or scanning techniques were used. The initial method is simple and can be conducted by copying manually all land boundaries previously created by the volunteers during the fieldwork directly onto the image. This method was recommended by Forrester and Cinderby (2014) as the image do not need any pre-processing and the vector layer is created directly. The second method of uploading volunteer maps into the GIS involved scanning the transparencies where the top layer on the satellite image or topographic map which shows the participatory plot demarcation. The annotations of satellite or aerial imagery or topographic maps are then digitised.

Secondly, an attribute file was created for each plot surveyed with varying types of attribute such as the name of the owner, occupant (if different), land use, and recent changes). Thirdly, the formal land administration data was uploaded. This involved whatever form of data the authority used. For example, cadastral maps, as well as formal attribute data. As described in Chapter 6, the geometric and positional data captured by VGI were tested against reference surveys, existing mapping or imagery, but the attribute data were validated by crowd-sourcing. This was because official records of ownership are confidential and could not be accessed or the sub-division had a complicated ownership structure or contemporary information was required. Further attribute data reflecting environmental changes was also recorded by the volunteers – change of river course, building demolition or construction, notifications of heritage status, or changes in land use. Such information allowed for tests of completeness and currency to be undertaken later, and comparisons made between the official records and the VGI.

3.8 Chapter summary

This chapter has detailed the approach to the research, the refining of research questions, the sampling of locations, the development of data collection tools and their use in fieldwork. It has also explained the ways in which data was gathered, what that data consisted of, how it was

The designing and development of the methodology for this study has altered the researcher’s understanding of what it possible in fieldwork in a stressful and challenging context such as Iraq. New skills and understanding were needed and a more robust approach to research design, data collection and analysis was developed.

A great deal was learned during the development of the methodology and data collection tools which prepared the present author for the fieldwork and analysis and, ultimately, improved his research skills more generally. Nevertheless, despite all the preparation described here, problems were encountered at several stages of the work which needed to be worked through, reflected on and accommodated in the fieldwork. From the start, war, civil unrest and insurgency delayed the final choice of study country and location. As there was some doubt that the work could be done in Iraq, other countries were considered. Many connections and contacts were made, especially in Egypt, to allow the work to take place there. This was stressful and delayed the work to a considerable degree in the early days. However, eventually the first choice of country, Iraq, was accepted. Nevertheless, the security situation in Iraq still meant that the work could have been interrupted at any point and that it may have been difficult to access and engage communities. This taught the researcher the importance of very careful planning and the need for good gatekeepers.

Considerable openness and adaptation was required once the work was underway, especially in the field. For example, from the very early stages of engaging volunteers and training them, the researcher needed to learn to adopt a different attitude to his role, accepting that, despite being a professional and studying for a PhD, he was not the expert in this situation. This adjustment helped him to manage the volunteers, to elicit their support and local knowledge, and to recognise when and how to adapt to different situations on the ground, such as the lack of female involvement in rural areas.

Although the workshops were considered carefully during the preparation, improvements in people- and data-handling became evident with each succeeding workshop. Similarly, understanding the need to engage diverse communities is not the same as knowing how to respond to and work with these communities until the work is underway. For example, it was not anticipated that the influence of cultural norms would limit women’s involvement in rural areas. This was a specific challenge, but overcoming it was rewarding, and the researcher learned a great many skills in research design, data collection, management and analysis, and working in stressed contexts, which will be invaluable in his career and any further research.