Los servicios productivos de los animales

state-of-the-art today. In section 3.2 the method for the technology research is discussed. In section 3.3 the current state-of-the-art as well as specific market suppliers and products are discussed. In the section 3.6, the future developments as well as market players and products are discussed. The chapter ends with conclusions and an outlook.

3.1 Background

TPMS was first adopted widely by the European market as an optional feature for high-end passenger vehicles in the 1980s and 1990s (e.g. Porsche’s 959 in 1986, Renault’s Scenic in 1996, Peugeot’s 607 since 1999 and Renault’s Laguna II since 2000).

With the enactment of the TREAD Act in the USA in 2000, the use of a suitable TPMS technology in all light motor vehicles (under 10,000 pounds) was mandated to help alert drivers of severe under-inflation events. In Europe TPMS has been made mandatory for M1 vehicles by Regulation (EC) 661/2009. Effectively, in the United States as of 2008 and the European Union as of November 1, 2012, all new passenger car models (M1) must be equipped with a TPMS. From November 1, 2014, all new passenger cars sold in the European Union must be equipped with TPMS. For N1 vehicles, TPMS is not mandatory, but if a TPMS is fitted, it must comply with the regulation .

3.1.1 Legislation

For the markets EU-27 and the USA, two types of regulation are currently in place for regulating the technical requirements for TPMS systems on light-duty vehicles:

 In the EU-27 market: Regulation No.64 of the Economic Commission for Europe

of the United Nations (UN/ECE);

 In the US market: FMVSS 138.

Within regulation UNECE R64 as well as in FMVSS 138, several minimum

performance criteria are listed. A short summary of these criteria is given below for the categories:

 Operation

 Malfunction

 Warning

Regulation No. 64 [UNECE, 2010]6:

 Operation: The system shall operate from a speed of 40 km/h or below, up to

the vehicle’s maximum design speed. The TPMS shall illuminate the warning signal not more than 10 minutes after the in service operating pressure in one of the vehicle’s tyres has been reduced by 20 per cent or it is at a minimum pressure of 150 kPa (=1.5 bar), whatever is higher.

 Pressure range: The TPMS shall illuminate the warning signal within not more

than 60 minutes of cumulative driving time after the in- service operating pressure in any of the vehicle’s tyres, up to a total of four tyres, has been reduced by 20 per cent.

 Malfunction: The TPMS shall illuminate the warning signal not more than 10

minutes after the occurrence of a malfunction that affects the generation or transmission of control or response signals in the vehicle’s tyre pressure monitoring system. If the system is blocked by external influence (e.g. radio- frequency noise), the malfunction detection time may be extended.

 Warning: The warning indication shall be by means of an optical warning signal.

The warning signal shall be activated when the ignition (start) switch is in the ‘on’ (run) position (bulb check). The warning signal must be visible even by daylight.

FMVSS 138 [FMVSS, 2005]7:

 Operation: The TPMS must illuminate a low tyre pressure warning tell-tale not

more than 20 minutes after the inflation pressure in one or more of the vehicle's tyres, up to a total of four tyres, is equal to or less than either the pressure 25 per cent below the vehicle manufacturer's recommended cold inflation pressure, or the pressure specified in this standard, whichever is higher; The TPMS must continue to illuminate the low tyre pressure warning telltale as long as the pressure in any of the vehicle's tyres is equal to or less than the pressure specified above and the ignition locking system is in the "On" ("Run") position, whether or not the engine is running, or until manually reset in accordance with the vehicle manufacturer's instructions.

 Pressure range: The TPMS low tyre pressure warning tell-tale has to fulfil above

specifications at a minimum activation pressure. The minimum activation pressure is given for different tyre types and load ranges and depends on the maximum or rated inflation pressure (see table below).

Table 13: Low pressure warning telltale – minimum activation pressure [FMVSS, 2005] Column 1 –

tyre type

Column 2 – maximum or rated inflation pressure

Column 3 – minimum activation pressure

[kPa] [psi] [kPa] [psi]

P-metric – Standard Load 240, 300, or 350 35, 44, or 51 140 140 140 20 20 20 P-metric – Extra Load 280 or 350 41 or 49 160 160 23 23 Load Range C 350 51 200 29 6

In the case of vehicles of categories M1up to a maximum mass of 3 500 kg and N1, in both cases with all axles equipped with single tyres.

7 _{This standard applies to passenger cars, multipurpose passenger vehicles, trucks, and buses}

that have a gross vehicle weight rating of 4,536 kg (10,000 lbs.) or less, except those vehicles with dual wheels on an axle.

Column 1 – tyre type

Column 2 – maximum or rated inflation pressure

Column 3 – minimum activation pressure

[kPa] [psi] [kPa] [psi]

Load Range D 450 65 240 35

Load Range E 550 80 240 35

 Malfunction: The vehicle shall be equipped with a TPMS that includes a telltale

that provides a warning to the driver not more than 20 minutes after the occurrence of a malfunction that affects the generation or transmission of control or response signals in the vehicle's tyre pressure monitoring system. The vehicle's TPMS malfunction indicator shall meet either of the following requirements:

- Dedicated TPMS malfunction tell-tale.

TPMS malfunction tell-tale that is mounted inside the occupant

compartment in front of and in clear view of the driver; it is identified by the word "TPMS" and it continues to illuminate the TPMS malfunction tell-tale for as long as the malfunction exists,

- Combination low tyre pressure/TPMS malfunction telltale

The TPMS flashes for a period of at least 60 seconds but no longer than 90 seconds upon detection of any specified condition after the ignition locking system is activated to the "On" ("Run") position. After this period of

prescribed flashing, the tell-tale must remain continuously illuminated as long as the malfunction exists and the ignition locking system is in the "On" ("Run") position. This flashing and illumination sequence must be repeated each time the ignition locking system is placed in the "On" ("Run") position until the situation causing the malfunction has been corrected.

 Warning: Each TPMS must include a low tyre pressure warning tell-tale that is

illuminated and is mounted inside the occupant compartment in front of and in clear view of the driver;

Both legislations discussed above show that TPMS on passenger cars (see definition in footnote 6 and 7) has to fulfil certain minimum performance criteria. These criteria are of specific interest when discussing the performance and particular features of currently available TPMS technologies for LCVs and HDVs (see section 3.3). As TPMS on light duty vehicles is already well regulated and widely adapted in the US and EU-27, below the same criteria, specifically the pressure range and accuracy, will be used as reference for LCVs and HDVs.

3.2 Method

The aim of this task is to make an inventory of:

 Current state-of-the-art and suppliers (section 3.3);

 Future developments with respect to TPMS and market players (section 3.4).

For this purpose, the following sources of information were used:

 Literature research (public domain information, e.g. internet);

 Questionnaire & interviews (focussed on different stakeholders involved in the

Literature research

Literature from public domain sources was used to get insight into the TPMS system technology and classification. Due to the existing EU and US legislation for M1 vehicles, much literature on TPMS is focussed on this category. Since the technology for the LCV/HDV market is not intrinsically different, some of this literature is also applicable for this study.

Questionnaire & interviews

Questionnaires and interviews were used to get specific information about commercially used technologies and their market penetration.