According to the position of metals in the Periodic Table, the metals are named alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, transition metals, and rare earth metals. Four elements (nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen and oxygen) account for 96% of living matter. About 50 of the known elements occur in measurable concentrations in the living systems. In humans and other mammals, 23 elements have known physiological activities (macro nutrients and micro-nutrients). The macronutrients are sodium, calcium, magnesium, potassium, chlorine, etc., which are required in larger quantities by living organism while microelements are 11 in numbers and are classified as ‘‘trace elements’’ because of their essentiality at very limited quantity in humans (less than 100 mg/day). Out of these 11 trace elements, eight are in the period IV of the Periodic table (manganese (Mn), iron (Fe), cobalt (Co), copper (Cu), vanadium (V), chromium (Cr), zinc (Zn) and molybdenum (Mo) and three are non-metals selenium (Se), fluorine (F) and iodine (I). Transition metals that are trace elements of significance for human physiology are, Cobalt (Co), molybdenum (Mo), chromium (Cr) and vanadium (V). In biological systems, trace elements are mostly present as metalloproteins (bound to proteins), or to smaller molecules, such as phosphates, phytates, polyphenols and other chelating compounds. Most of the metals in metalloproteins are part of enzymatic systems and have structural functions or use the protein to be transported to their target site in the organism (Mokdad et al., 2004). Research has indicated association of cancer, diabetes and cardiovascular diseases with diet which has prompted increased consumption of fiber, fatty acids, phytochemicals, and trace elements (Willett, 2002). The role a metal plays, depends on its chemical structure, as well as on the molecule that is chelating the metal (Halliwell & Gutteridge, 1999). For example, Zn, as with other group XII elements, has no unpaired electrons when in the state Zn2+, preventing its participation in redox reactions but
Zn has been recognized to act as an antioxidant by replacing metals that are active in catalyzing free radical reactions, such as Fe (Oteiza et al., 2004; Zago & Oteiza, 2001). In enzymes, the metals participate in catalytic processes in any of the following ways:
1. Constituents of enzyme active sites.
2. Stabilizers of enzyme tertiary or quaternary structure.
3. Associates in forming weak bonding complexes with the substrate. 4. Stabilizing charged transition states.
Based on the increased knowledge of the biological mechanisms ruling life we have made a good progress in increasing the life expectancy. However, this has lead to increased incidence of chronic and degenerative diseases, one of the reasons of which could be increasing amount of toxic substances in our body. To deal with this essentiality/toxicity duality, biological systems have developed the ability to recognize a metal, and deliver it to the target without allowing the metal to participate in toxic reactions (Luk et al., 2003). Proteins are primarily responsible for such recognition and transport of these elements thereby making them safe for body. However increase in the intake of certain nutrients as therapeutics or through food may lead to high concentrations of these elements resulting toxicity in the body.
Trace elements are essential components of biological structures, but at the same time they can be toxic beyond the concentration needed for their biological functions. The toxicity
can be extended to other non-essential elements of very similar atomic characteristics that can mimic the reactivity of a trace element.
The presence of trace elements in foods is often determined by the availability of metals in the soil. Thus, within a geographical region with soils deprived/excess of trace elements, its population is at a risk thereby resulting into trace elements deficiency/toxicity. Unfortunately, in recent years the avalanche of uncontrolled supplementation with trace elements has put some trace elements on the border of toxicity in several populations. Thus, it is a crucial priority to define the requirements for trace elements, based on essentiality and health promotion, and the limits for toxicity. Then it becomes necessary either to supplement the basic food by adding the appropriate trace elements (milk, flour, etc.) or counteract/dilute the element in excess (de Romana et al., 2005; Hurrell et al., 2004). These supplements sometimes becomes necessary in several disease treatments, e.g. anemic conditions in kidney dialysis (Locatelli et al., 2004) and physiological conditions, e.g. extensive blood loss during menstruation (Munro, 2000). There are other factors to consider that can define the requirements for essential elements beyond their presence in foods (Table 1):
Element Antagonists restricting absorption, utilization
or retention
Synergists promoting absorption, utilization
or retention Zinc Phytate with high calcium intake
High iron intake
Heterologous milks (infants only) [High zinc status; aging]
Low calcium intake, animal proteins
Homologous milk (infants only) [Late pregnancy; lactation]
[Low zinc status] Copper High iron, high zinc intakes
[High copper status] High molybdenum with high
sulphur intake
High protein intake [Late pregnancy; lactation?]
[Low copper status] Iodine Elevated goitrogen intake
[Low selenium status] - -
Selenium Elevated heavy-metal intake -
Chromium Oxalates, high iron intake
[High chromium status] [Low chromium status] Manganese High calcium intake (infant
formulae) [High manganese status]
- -
Cadmium High calcium intake Low iron intake, low calcium intake
Lead Phytate with high calcium intake Low iron, low calcium and phosphorus intakes
Table 1. Antagonists restricting and synergists promoting absorption, utilization or retention of trace elements in humans
1. Interaction among nutrients, e.g. interactions between iron and other metals (Aschner, 2000);
2. The presence of certain compounds in the diet, that can impair metal absorption, e.g. phytates bind Zn, preventing absorption (Greger, 1999; Lestienne et al., 2005);
3. Genetic defects, e.g. Zn absorption is decreased in acrodermatitis enteropathica (Wang et al., 2004);
4. drug–nutrient interactions, e.g. penicillamine used in the treatment of Wilsons disease causes Zn deficiency (Schilsky, 2001).
The important variables that should be considered when the levels of trace elements are increased in the body are the effects genetic and individual differences in the targeted population, life-style, nutra-genetic interactions, and other individual factors that can determine the effects of the nutrient on the disease.