Lynn Margulis y la teoría de la especiación por simbiogénesis

Capítulo II Las teorías de la evolución

3. Otras formas de ver la evolución

3.3 Lynn Margulis y la teoría de la especiación por simbiogénesis

How strong was the accountability system? What was the system of sanctions and rewards? How has this system changed over time [questionnaire]?

When was the mathematics assessment system first implemented? How has it changed during this period?

Was there a state-level mathematics assessment at the 8th_{or higher grades? What type was used}

(basic skills or higher order thinking)? Was it a requirement for graduation?

When did school report cards become available? When did the state start to disaggregate achievement data by subgroups [questionnaire]

Accountability System

The state was one of the earliest to gain approval for their accountability and assessment practices with the federal government (CPRE, 2000). The new emphasis of the accountability system has moved from rewards for teachers to rewards for school and from sanctions to assistance

(CPRE, 2000). Carnoy & Loeb (2002) developed a zero-to-five index of the strength of

accountability in 50 states based on the use of high-stakes testing to sanction and reward schools. Kentucky is of the a few states that received the second highest rating.

Student Accountability

In 1996, Kentucky had no rewards or consequences for students linked to their standards (AFT, 1996). By 1998, although there were still no consequences for students who do not meet the standards, there were incentives for students to meet the standards. Students who meet or exceed credit requirements, which include Advanced Placement courses, and who maintain a “C” in all their

classes earn the state’s advanced “Commonwealth Diploma.” (AFT, 1998). By 2000, student performance on the state assessment was sent to parents (CPRE, 2000).

School Accountability

1998. Kentucky provides funding for extra academic assistance to students who are having

difficulty meeting the standards. Students are selected for the intervention based on teacher recommendation (AFT, 1998).

2000. The school accountability system is amended and will be implemented in 2000. Until

then, the state has developed an interim model for charting school progress (CPRE, 2000).

District Accountability

1996. Kentucky law requires districts to provide “extended school services” to students who

are not performing well enough to meet the state standards, and special funds are provided by the state for this purpose (AFT, 1996).

2000. A formal accountability system for districts has not been developed. However, a

district summary of all of the district schools’ report cards is printed in each area’s largest circulation newspaper.

State Assessment System (mathematics)

1988. Students have been tested in reading, writing, Language arts, and mathematics in

grades 3, 5, 7, and 10 since 1979. Local school districts must provide remedial help to those students falling below state-established performance standards. Under Legislation passed in 1984 the State Department of Education established essential skills standards by grade and subject in mathematics, reading, reference skills, spelling and writing and began testing students in these areas in every grade in 1985-86. Remediation is required for 1st_{and 2}nd_{graders not passing the essential skills tests} (Goertz, 1988).

1990. Students are tested in reading, writing, language arts, and mathematics in grades K, 1,

2, 3, 5, 7, and 10. Local school districts must provide remedial help to those students falling below state-established performance standards (Coley & Goertz, 1990).

1996. Kentucky has a state assessment system tied to their standards and given to all

students across the state. Students are assessed in the core subject areas in grades 4/5, 7/8, and 11/12. The exact grade varies by subject (AFT, 1996).

1998. Beginning in the 1998/99 school year, Kentucky will implement a new testing

program. According to state officials it will include reading and science tests in grades 4, 7, and high school; writing in grades 4, 7, and 12; and math and social studies tests in grades 5, 8, and high school (AFT, 1998).

2000. The state assessment system centers around the Commonwealth Accountability

Testing System (CATS), the new testing system. CTBS-5 (is a multiple choice norm-referenced test) tests grades 3, 6, 9 in Reading, Math, Language Arts and CATS (is a multiple choice and open response criterion-referenced test) tests mathematics in grades 5 and 11 (CPRE, 2000).

Summary

Did the state have a consistent (in terms of duration and stability) commitment to education reform over the periods 1988 through 1998 [questionnaire]?

Did the state have a coherent approach (in terms of sequencing and alignment) to education reform during this period [questionnaire]?

What were the main reform mechanisms (curriculum control, teacher empowerment, standard-based assessment) during this period [questionnaire]?

What were the main positive effects of the reforms on low-poverty and high-poverty schools and students? What were the unintended effects [questionnaire]?

References

American Federation of Teachers. (1989, 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1997). AFT

50-state teacher salary survey. Retrieved as an excel spreadsheet on November 2003 from

http://www.aft.org/research/salary/stgrave/Index.htm

American Federation of Teachers. (1995). Making standards matter 1995: A fifty-state progress

report on efforts to raise academic standards. Washington, DC: Author.

American Federation of Teachers. (1996). Making standards matter 1996: An annual fifty-state

report on efforts to raise academic standards. Washington, DC: Author.

American Federation of Teachers. (1998). Making standards matter 1998: An annual fifty-state

report on efforts to raise academic standards. Washington, DC: Author.

Carnoy, M. & Loeb, S. (2002). Does external accountability affect student outcomes? A cross- state analysis. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 24(4), 305-331.

Coley, R. J. and Goertz, M. E. (1990). Educational standards in the 50 states: 1990. Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service, Policy Information Center.

Consortium for Policy Research in Education. (1996). Teacher professional development profile:

Kentucky. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania, Graduate School of Education,

Consortium for Policy Research in Education.

Consortium for Policy Research in Education. (2000). Assessment and Accountability in the Fifty

States: Survey 2000: Kentucky Assessment and Accountability Profile. Philadelphia, PA:

University of Pennsylvania, Graduate School of Education, Consortium for Policy Research in Education.

Darling-Hammond, L. (2000). Teacher quality and student achievement: A review of state policy evidence. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 8(1). Retrieved June, 2003 from

Goertz, M. E. (1988). State educational standards in the 50 states: An update. Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service.

Hussar, W. & Sonnenberg, W. (2000). Trends in disparities in school district level expenditures per

pupil (NCES 2000-020). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics.

Ingersoll, R. M. (2003). Out-of-field teaching and the limits of teacher policy: A research report co-

sponsored by Center for the Study of Teaching and Policy and the Consortium for Policy Research in Education. Seattle, Washington: Center for the Study of Teaching and Policy.

Kentucky Department of Education. (2000). State of Kentucky profile 1999-2000. Lexington, KY: Author. Retrieved December 12, 2003, from http://www.kde.state.ky.us.

National Association of State Directors of Teacher Education and Certification. (1988). Manual

on certification and preparation of educational personnel in the United States. Dubuque,

Iowa: Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company.

National Association of State Directors of Teacher Education and Certification. (1991). Manual

on certification and preparation of educational personnel in the United States. Dubuque,

Iowa: Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company.

National Association of State Directors of Teacher Education and Certification. (1996). Manual

on certification and preparation of educational personnel in the United States. Dubuque,

Iowa: Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company.

National Association of State Directors of Teacher Education and Certification. (2000). Manual

on certification and preparation of educational personnel in the United States. Dubuque,

Iowa: Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company.

National Center for Education Statistics. (1993). Statistics in brief: Revenues and expenditures for

public elementary and secondary education: School year 1992-93. Retrieved December 7,