Método de Oliver y Pharr para hallar la función de área

(1) National Association of Schools of Public Affairs and Administration (NASPAA) (U.S.)

Founded in 1970 and incorporated in 1977, the National Association of Schools of Public Affairs and Administration (NASPAA) is an American accrediting organization which promotes education relating to public service. It accredits member institutions, which include some 253 graduate level educational programs in public administration, public affairs, public policy, and non-profit management at universities and colleges in the United States.

The mission of NASPAA is Òto ensure excellence in education and training for public service and to promote the ideal of public service.Ó34 Member institutions of NASPAA must offer academic programs of study which have separate curricula dedicated to the provision of undergraduate or graduate degrees in professional and public service related disciplines.

Within NASPAA is the Commission on Peer Review and Accreditation (COPRA), which accredits masters degree programs in the disciplines mentioned above relating to public service. The Council for Higher Education Accreditation (CHEA) Ð the non-

governmental organization in the United States which coordinates accreditation in higher education Ð acknowledges the activities of COPRA.

The academic programs of the member institutions of NASPAA are not identical in their professional orientation or their course curricula, and as a result there are five sections used to categorize member institutions:

· Comprehensive Schools

· Political Science Based Programs · Non-Profit Management Education;

· Health Sector Management Education; and · Small Programs.35

Those member institutions in NASPAA with similar interests may group themselves according to these sections.

There exist three different types of membership within NASPAA: institutional, associate, and international associate memberships. Institutional membership applies to regular

34

National Association of Schools of Public Affairs and Administration, website accessed February 19, 2005: <http://www.naspaa.org/>

35

National Association of Schools of Public Affairs and Administration, ÒNASPAA OverviewÓ page, on the NASPAA website, accessed February 20, 2005:

departments, schools, programs, centres, etc., within larger educational institutions such as colleges or universities, which offer professional programs of study in public affairs, public administration, or public policy. Associate membership applies to U.S. based academic and non-academic organizations that adhere to the principles and purpose of NASPAA, and can include other professional organizations, government, non-profit foundations, and educational institutions in non-public service related areas.

International associate membership applies to non-U.S. academic programs in public policy, public administration, or non-profit management, or other related areas of study. NASPAA accredits graduate level programs of study, not individual schools or

institutions. For a professional program of study to be accredited by NASPAA, the academic unit (i.e. department, school, centre, faculty, etc.) offering that program must be a member of NASPAA and its program must be at the masters degree level. The home institution (the larger institution of higher education, e.g. university) of that academic unit must be regionally accredited.

Accreditation lasts for a seven-year period, and a fee of $3,042 (as of 2004-05) is charged (plus expenses for the three-person site team) with each accreditation review. Annual membership dues are also charged. Accredited members also are required to submit annual reports to NASPAA.

By joining NASPAA, members can not only become accredited but are then able to take part in the peer-review process in improving the quality of public service related

education. NAPSAA members are thus able to learn from other members.

Over 250 institutions, offering both bachelors and masters degree programs in public administration and public affairs, comprise NASPAAÕs membership. A total of 153 programs at 145 schools have thus far been accredited.36

(2) International Association of Schools and Institutes of Administration (IASIA) Incorporated in Rome in 1971, the International Association of Schools and Institutes of Administration (IASIA) is a non-profit association whose membership consists of individuals and organizations dealing with public administration and management. IASIAÕs purpose is to Òpromote and support co-operation among participating

organisations and individuals to enhance their capacity to strengthen the administrative and management capabilities of governments, organisations, agencies and enterprises they serve.Ó37

36

National Association of Schools of Public Affairs and Administration, 2004-2005 Roster of Accredited

Programs, on the NASPAA website, accessed March 16, 2005:

<http://www.naspaa.org/accreditation/public/AnnualRosterofAccreditedPrograms04-05.pdf

37

International Association of Schools and Institutes of Administration, website accessed February 20, 2005: <http://www.iiasiisa.be/schools/aequestce/aequestc.htm>

IASIAÕs membership consists of over 170 institutions, and in 70 different nations in seven geographical regions.

IASIA engages in three major activities: annual conferences, working/research groups, and publications. Annual conferences are held in a different region each year in order to allow diversity in participation. Working groups focus on specific research topics and involve participants from a number of different geographical areas. Numerous

publications are produced by IASIA which cover a variety of topics related to administration.

IASIA itself does not engage in accreditation of professional schools of administration, although it is involved with administrative and managerial education and training. Other accrediting organizations exist for various geographical regions throughout the world. For example, the European Association for Public Administration Accreditation (EAPAA) is the organization which accredits European programs in public administration.

IASIA is affiliated to other international organizations, including the International Institute of Administrative Sciences (IIAS), of which it is a specialized body. The other specialized body of IIAS is the European Group of Public Administration (EGPA). Together, IIAS along with IASIA and EGPA work to advance the practice and science of public administration and public management in a variety of regions.

(3) European Group of Public Administration (EGPA)

Established in 1972, the European Group of Public Administration (EGPA) currently exists as a regional organization within the International Institute of Public

Administration (IIPA). Its goal is the promotion of public administration and scholarly practice in the public sector throughout Europe.

As cited on its website, EGPAÕs four main objectives are as follows:

· to organise and encourage the exchange of information on developments in the theory and practice of public administration;

· to foster comparative studies and the development of public administrative theory within a European perspective;

· to facilitate the application of innovative ideas, methods, and techniques in public administration; and

· to include young teachers, researchers, as also civil servants in its activities.38

EGPA encourages research, discussion, and exchange between scholars and practitioners of other related backgrounds, including public law, economics, and the social sciences, throughout Europe.

38

European Group of Public Administration, ÒWhat is EGPA?Ó page, on the EGPA website, accessed March 4, 2005: <http://www.iiasiisa.be/egpa/agquest.htm>

The activities of EGPA range from annual conferences and study groups, to the

production of professional and academic publications and dissemination of information through the Internet.

Membership in EGPA is primarily for individuals, both those already involved in public administration as well as those with an interest in the field. Institutions can become corporate members of EGPA.

EGPA is not an accrediting organization. The European Association for Public

Administration Accreditation (EAPAA) is the organization which accredits professional schools of public administration in Europe.

(4) Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business (AACSB) International Founded in 1916, the Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business (AACSB) first started accrediting business schools in 1919. In 1980 its focus expanded to include schools offering professional programs in accounting. In April 2001, AACSB became AACSB International.

AACSB International is an organization which accredits professional schools offering programs of study in business and accounting at the bachelors, masters, and doctoral levels of education.

Its total membership consists of over 950 academic institutions, plus many private sector companies and non-profit agencies in over 71 countries worldwide. Its accredited membership includes 494 institutions (166 with accreditation in accounting) in 24 countries.

AACSB InternationalÕs mission is to promote high quality business and management education on a global scale. This is accomplished through the accreditation of business schools, the provision of knowledge services regarding business education, services to members, thought leadership (i.e. expertise in management education), and public advocacy for management education.

Business schools which are members of AACSB International are not necessarily accredited. The accreditation process is a rigorous process open only to members. It advances through several stages, which are summarized as follows:

(1) Membership Ð the business school must first apply for membership in AACSB International.

(2) PreAccreditation Ð the business school must then apply to the

PreAccreditation Committee (PAC) which manages this step including a review of the application.

Accreditation Committee (IAC), which if implemented leads to accreditation. (4) Maintenance of Accreditation Ð the business school must improve its strategic management plan and submit a maintenance report on an annual basis, and must also participate in data collection for accreditation. It must also schedule dates for visits by a Peer Review Team (PRT) which produces a report that will lead to an eventual decision regarding re-accreditation.39

Membership in AACSB International is diverse. AACSB InternationalÕs four sustaining members form its corporate level of membership, and include AVT Institute of Executive Education, the Graduate Management Admission Council (GMAC), KPMG

International, and McGraw-Hill Irwin. AACSB members also include many other corporate, government, and non-profit organizations committed to the education of management professionals worldwide.

(5) American Library Association (ALA)

Established in Philadelphia in 1876, the American Library Association (ALA) is an organization which promotes library and information services as well as the profession of librarianship.

The Committee on Accreditation (COA) is the ALAÕs standing committee which accredits graduate level educational programs in library and information studies. It accredits the programs themselves, not the schools offering them. The COA undertakes a comprehensive review process in which a prospective educational program is assessed based on its adherence to the standards of accreditation.

Accreditation is granted based on adherence to a set of specific standards. These standards are based on six broad categories: (1) mission, goals, and objectives; (2)

curriculum; (3) faculty; (4) students; and (5) administration and financial support; and (6) physical resources and facilities.40

The COA accredits programs in the United States, but also accredits similar masters level educational programs in Canada through an agreement with the Canadian Library

Association (CLA).

COA accreditation is specialized accreditation. The parent institution of the school, centre, or institute receiving accreditation from the COA must be institutionally

accredited by an appropriate accrediting body (this, however, does not apply to Canadian programs).

39

AACSB International, The Accreditation Process on the AACSB website, accessed February 23, 2005: <http://www.aacsb.edu/accreditation/process/ACCREDPROCESSFLOW.pdf>

40

American Library Association, ÒStandards for Accreditation of MasterÕs Programs in Library and Information Studies 1992Ó page, on the ALA website, accessed February 21, 2005:

Throughout the overall accreditation process, the COA may make several decisions regarding the accreditation status of an educational program. Each status is outlined as follows:

(1) Precandidacy Ð indicates that a program of study is committed to the process of accreditation as set forth by the COA.

(2) Candidacy Ð indicates that a program of study is prepared to commence a two- year process that may eventually lead to accreditation.

(3) Initially Accredit Ð indicates that a program of study has received its first ever accreditation by the COA.

(4) Continue Accreditation Ð also called ÒAccredited,Ó this status indicates that the program of study has regularly shown its adherence to the standards of accreditation.

(5) Conditionally Accredit Ð indicates that the program of study requires essential and pressing improvement in order to be accredited.

(6) Withdrawn Accreditation Ð indicates that accreditation by the COA has been withdrawn from a program of study.

(7) Deny Initial Accreditation Ð indicates that a program of study has been denied initial accreditation.41

Decisions regarding accreditation status of any educational program are made at the ALA/COAÕs regularly scheduled meetings. These decisions provide an analysis of the program of study but do not prescribe the means by which the professional school should take specific actions.

(6) Association of University Programs in Health Administration (AUPHA) The Association of University Programs in Health Administration (AUPHA) is a non- profit organization whose mission is to promote health management and practice. Its varied membership includes health management educational programs, health care professionals, faculty, and health care providers in the United States, Canada, and overseas. Academic membership includes over 130 undergraduate and graduate programs in such areas as public health, medicine, and business administration

throughout North America. Internationally, membership includes numerous programs in health administration plus various health care organizations. In total, over 230

institutions are represented in AUPHA. The purpose of AUPHA is to serve towards

· providing a forum for group discussion of problems and methods common to hospital administration programs;

· establishing standards for member programs, including curriculum design; and

41

American Library Association, ÒAccreditation GlossaryÓ page, on the ALA website, accessed February 21, 2005: <http://www.ala.org/ala/accreditation/accredstandards/glossary.htm>

· establishing strong links between the profession and the classroom by improving the administrative residency of health administration students.42

AUPHA is not an accrediting organization. Accreditation of university programs in health administration is a task performed by the Commission on Accreditation of Healthcare Management Education (CAHME), formerly known as the Accrediting Commission on Education for Health Services Administration (ACEHSA). The broad mission of CAHME is in Ò[s]erving the public good through promoting, evaluating, and improving the quality of graduate healthcare management education in the United States and Canada.Ó43

AUPHA is a joint sponsor of CAHME, along with many others including the American College of Healthcare Executives (ACHE), the American Public Health Association (APHA), the American College of Medical Practice Executives (ACMPE), and the American Hospital Association (AHA). The U.S. Department of Education recognizes CAHME as the only organization which accredits masters programs in health

administration and management in the U.S. and Canada.

A broad spectrum of health-related disciplines fall under the accreditation umbrella of CAHME, including health services management, health administration, public health policy, health planning, health evaluation, and other areas. The term healthcare

management is often used to describe all of the above. In order to address this diversity, CAHME utilizes an accreditation process which is flexible, incorporates diverse

educational requirements, and attends to a wide range of career paths in health-related fields.

CAHMEÕs accreditation criteria is divided into several broad categories, including (1) program mission, goals, performance, and support; (2) students and graduates; (3) teaching and curriculum; and (4) faculty, research, and service.

(7) Canadian Association of Schools of Nursing (CASN)

The Canadian Association of Schools of Nursing (CASN) promotes education and research in nursing and accredits professional schools of nursing in Canada. All educational institutions which offer nursing education in Canada are included amongst CASNÕs membership. CASN also serves as a resource for valuable and up-to-date information on nursing education, professional practice, and scholarly research in nursing.

Accreditation is an essential element of professional education and CASN has been involved in the accreditation of nursing programs since 1972. CASN regularly reviews

42

Association of University Programs in Health Administration, ÒHistoryÓ page, on the AUPHA website, accessed March 8, 2005: <http://www.aupha.org/about/history.php>

43

Commission on Accreditation of Healthcare Management Education, website accessed March 8, 2005: <http://www.cahmeweb.org/>

candidate nursing schools for possible accreditation. Its accreditation process is flexible enough to allow schools of nursing to reflect regional and social frameworks, yet rigorous enough to demand high standards of excellence in professional nursing education.

CASNÕs accreditation process is directed by four main criteria: (1) the relevance of nursing education in society; (2) professional accountability with respect to ethical, safety, and legal issues in nursing; (3) the relatedness of the various elements within nursing education; and (4) the uniqueness of the various professional schools of nursing.44

In CASNÕs accreditation process, the respective nursing school must first initiate a self- study based on the demands set forth by CASN. A site team then visits the nursing school and evaluates this self-study. Specific criteria subject to inspection by the site team include the academic program of that school as well as its physical assets and facilities.

After the site visit, the team produces a report which summarizes their findings regarding the school and it nursing program of study. Essential questions asked by the site team during the evaluation process include the following:

(1) Is the educational program responding to the major trends in society that affect community health?

(2) Is the program teaching the student that the primary responsibility in nursing is to the community, group, family and/or person?

(3) Do the components of the program build on other areas such as curriculum, teaching, research, clinical practice, professional activities and administration? (4) Is the program capitalizing on the unique characteristics of its resources and particular setting?45

In addition to accreditation of nursing schools, CASN also helps to inform and enlighten public policy with regards to nursing and nursing education, and presents a forum for debate over important issues in nursing throughout Canada and internationally.

CASN is a member of the Association of Accrediting Agencies of Canada (AAAC) as well as the Canadian Consortium for Research and the Network for the Advancement of Health Services Research.

(8) Canadian Association of Schools of Social Work (CASSW)

44

Canadian Association of Schools of Nursing, ÒAccreditation ProcessÓ page, on the CASN website, accessed February 22, 2005: <http://www.causn.org/Accreditation/accrediation_process.htm>

45

Canadian Association of Schools of Nursing, ÒThe CASN Accreditation Program Ð A Recognition of ExcellenceÓ page, on the CASN website, accessed February 22, 2005:

Founded in 1967, the Canadian Association of Schools of Social Work (CASSW)

continued the work of its predecessor organization, the National Committee of Schools of Social Work. CASSW is a non-governmental, non-profit association of organizations offering professional social work education at the undergraduate, graduate, and post- graduate levels. Its mission is to promote social work education and scholarship in Canada and abroad, and it fulfills this goal through accreditation of professional schools of social work as well as the provision of a forum for debate on issues affecting the social work profession.

CASSW carries out research in social work, advances educational standards in social work education, produces publications, holds conferences, and promotes public dialogue in areas related to social work and its professional practice.

In its accreditation process, CASSW undertakes a review and evaluation of each

professional school of social work every seven years. Accreditation is based on several broad attributes of each school of social work, including: (1) the schoolÕs mission

statements; (2) its structure, administration, governance, and resources; (3) its faculty and professional staff; and (4) its students.46 Both English and French are considered as acceptable languages for accreditation, as CASSW is a fully bilingual organization. CASSW accreditation standards demand that schools of social work pay particular attention to diversity in many respects (e.g. ethnic, cultural, racial, religious, etc.), and that each school fosters an environment which promotes learning within this diversity. The CASSW accreditation process involves six major stages, starting from an initially unaccredited status. They are indicated below:

(1) Obtaining Candidacy Status; (2) Candidacy;

(3) Obtaining Initial Accreditation Status; (4) Re-Accreditation;

(5) Program Changes; and

(6) Review of Accredited Status.47

The time period from the first to third stages is normally about three to five years. In addition, schools of social work are expected to produce self-study reports on a regular basis. Schools submit these reports when first applying for accreditation, and also when undergoing accreditation review.

46

Canadian Association of Schools of Social Work, CASSW Standards for Accreditation (May 4, 2004), on the CASSW website, accessed February 23, 2005: <http://www.cassw-

acess.ca/xACCR/pdf/Current%20manual%20version/Standards%20May%202004.PDF>

47

Canadian Association of Schools of Social Work, CASSW Procedures of Accreditation, p. 3, on the CASSW website, accessed February 22, 2005: <http://www.cassw-

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