3.2 Método visual

The site of Vari, 250 km to the west of Cusco, had an area of simultaneous occupation covering perhaps 500 ha over half a millennium before Inca expansion [Isbell 1984], Vari pottery at Batan Urqo was associated with stone slab tombs like those at Vari [Rowe 1956:1421, Pikillacta is a large site of Vari style architecture in the Lucre Basin about 30 km southeast of Cusco. It contains some 508 structures which appear to have been constructed and occupied between

1350 and 1050 BP, on the basis of radiocarbon dates and also the presence of seriated Vari (Ocros style) pottery of Middle Horizon Epoch IB or early 2A CMcEwan 1983; 1984a:131-133, 2271. The calibrated high confidence range of four dates, excluding one from the base of excavation, is between AD 420 and AD 1035 [Klein et.al. 19823. Abundant pottery, bone, batanes (grinding slabs) and

hearths unearthed in excavation have demonstrated that it was a complex centre of occupation, possibly organised on military lines, with differential

architectural elaboration suggesting it served as a residence to both commoners and elite [McEwan 1983; 1984a:153-1623.

Vari pottery occurs elsewhere in the Lucre Basin. It was associated with early construction at Rayallacta and accompanies some local contemporary and later pottery styles in refuse at Choquepukio, a site featuring high walls with Vari-like construction attributes but with trapezoidal Inca-like ground plans and local niche forms [McEwan 1984a:17,33-34,211; 1984b:121. Vari polychrome pottery is reported in association with a style named Qotakalli at a site

within Cusco itself, but there is no indication of Wari occupation in the lower

Urubamba Valley [Kendall 1976:91 ;Espinosa 1983:16-22]. The likelihood of surface occurrence must be considered low, given that in the case of a well

known and accessible site, like Pikillacta, the nature of Vari occupation was unknown before major excavations.

Lucre basin pottery styles from the time of Vari influence are known as Lucre and Qotakalli. The former, illustrated but not formally described, has been divided into two variants by McEwan [1984a:165,241-31. Lucre B

incorporates elements of Vari decorative technique, motifs and colour, occurs in deposits in buildings at Pikillacta and is considered a local imitation of Vari

pottery. Lucre A appears to be decoratively related to Killke, a style common , therafter in the northern part of the Cusco Valley.

Qotakalli sherds occurred in clear association with Vari pottery at Pikillacta, but the style is not considered by McEwan [1984a:1651 to show

strong Vari influence. Excavations at Vimpillay (Limpillay), although not yet reported in detail, appear to have located Qotakalli material stratified between

Chanapata and Killke style pottery and associated with 'Vari' pottery CBarreda 1982:14]. Qotakalli sherdage, which I was able to inspect at Cusco University, has been described and illustrated for Vimpillay and other sites in circum-

Cusco provinces by Barreda [op.cit. 14-22]. The fabric is described as light cream or pale red, well fired, without mica, slightly porous and with white

inclusions. Exterior surfaces are pale cream, interiors are the same or pale

red and both have a self-same slip. Exteriors feature traces of polish and interiors are brushed or cloth-wiped. Decoration comprises painted parallel or

a lo n e . M o tifs in c lu d e v e r t i c a l o r o b liq u e p a r a l l e l l i n e s m eetin g o th e r li n e s , b la c k d o ts , p a r a l l e l o r c r o s s in g l i n e s f i l l i n g t r i a n g u l a r o r diam ond sh ap ed s p a c e s and a l t e r n a t i n g b la c k and re d p a r a l l e l z ig -z a g o r wavy li n e s .

3.3.4 P o s t Wari Cusco.

The L ate I n te r m e d ia te P e rio d [Rowe 1962, b an n in g 1967:251, betw een w ith d ra w a l o f d i r e c t V a ri in f lu e n c e in th e Cusco V alley and th e em ergence of d i s t i n c t i v e In ca a r c h i t e c t u r e and p o tt e r y a s s e m b la g e s , i s c h a r a c te r iz e d by a f a r g r e a t e r p re s e n c e of s u r f a c e re m a in s o f a r c h i t e c t u r e and p o tt e r y . Choquepukio, d a te d from m a te r ia l in th e w a lls o f s t r a i g h t s id e d s t r u c t u r e s to AD 860±60 [McEwan 1984a:2101 and AD 1255±59 [K end all 1976:971, c a l i b r a t e d to th e ra n g e s AD 8 5 5 -1 0 4 0 and AD 1 23 5-1345 r e s p e c t iv e l y [K lein e t . a l . 19821, r e p r e s e n t s th e f i r s t p a r t o f t h i s p h a se in th e a r e a m ost d i r e c t l y a f f e c t e d by V a ri o c c u p a tio n . Beyond th e Cusco V alley , th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s e tt le m e n t a r c h i t e c t u r e of th e p e rio d i s o f s t r u c t u r e s w ith rou n ded , c i r c u l a r o r o v a lo id f lo o r p la n s .

S e v e ra l s i t e s , found by Rowe d u rin g 1942 in th e e n v iro n s o f Cusco, f e a tu r e d a p o t t e r y s t y l e f i r s t lo c a te d in th e th e g ro u n d s o f S an to Domingo c h u rc h , c a l le d Canchon and l a t e r renam ed K illk e a f t e r a n o th e r s i t e [1944:60-611. O ften m ixed w ith Inca p o tt e r y on th e s u r f a c e , b u t n o t w ith g la z e d C o lo n ia l p o tt e r y , K illk e was a t t r i b u t e d a l a t e p r e - I n c a d a te . Rowe d iv id e d th e m a te r ia l from s e v e r a l s i t e s in to f iv e g ro u p s m ain ly by d e c o r a tio n , d e f in in g com ponents o f a s s e m b la g e s r a t h e r th a n a s i n g l e s t y l e : K illk e F lain h a s a s o f t and c o a rs e re d p a s t e and b ru s h e d b u t n o t sm oothed s u r f a c e s , c o m p ris in g o f te n b la ck en ed s h e r d s from w ide-m outhed j a r s w ith a ta p e r in g f o o t and p a ire d h o r iz o n t a l s t r a p h a n d le s on th e body, a s w ell a s s m a lle r g lo b u la r f i a t - b a s e d j a r s and b o th deep

and shallow plates. The other four groups all shared a finer paste with a chalky texture, more evenly fired and light in colour. Killke Buff was

undecorated but polished on the exterior with a blunt tool, and jar sherds are brushed on the interior. Killke Black on Buff features linear painting and dots

in lustreless black. Killke Black on White has similar patterns on white slip, and includes cup and bowl forms. Killke Polychrome features both red and black linear patterns, and red used to fill areas. Associated material includes slate knives, pottery figurines, spindle whorls, worked shell, and walls of fieldstone in mud mortar Cop.cit.].

Further work by Dwyer [1971] in the Cusco Valley has traced technical and stylistic antecedents of the assemblage, and its major contribution to the Inca pottery in use at the time of European contact. A tentative temporal scheme of subdivision was achieved by considering separately a small sample of pottery from a lower excavated unit at Sacsaywaman, called Killke A, a larger corpus from the upper unit, Killke B t and the material which predominated on surface sites, Killke CD, as well as the examination of whole vessels in museum and private collections. The top stratum of the lower unit at Killke provided carbon dated to AD 1180±140, which falls within the calibrated range AD 1020- 1405 Cop.cit.:140, Klein et.al. 1982].

Killke B plain brown ware was probably burnished with a stone, leaving grooves and a 'shiny streak' appearance [Dwyer 1971:87]. It includes a ring- pedestal vessel Cop.cit.:86,101,fig.128], possible prototype for an Inca cooking vessel. Common 'buff wares' include straight sided bowls, painted on the

interior but not exterior surfaces, featuring black painted triangles on the lip, larger triangles filled with cross hatching, thin black lines combined with

wider bands, or solid black circles connected by lines to the apex of solid or cross hatched triangles Cop.cit.:87-90]. Thin curved bowls (Bowl Shape A) often feature a red band with a thin black outline on the interior rim. Shallower

bowls (Bowl Shape B), of 10-16cm diameter, stand 3-4cm high. Incurving bowls,

of ll-19cm m a x imum diameter, are more finely finished than other forms and usually feature exterior decoration and a black band on the interior rim Iop.cit.:90-92]. A very wide (18.5cm diameter) shallow plate form with smooth

and polished surfaces has a rim-bulge or lug with a 3 m m deep hole in the top Cop.cit.:99].

Characteristic features of all Killke decorated pottery are the combination of thin black lines (2-3 mm) and red bands (1-3 cm), in which washy

application of red fails to mask the underlying fabric colour, and lines which

rarely meet with precision. Motifs include triangles filled with a criss-cross pattern of thin black lines, c o m m o n on bowl interiors, criss-crossing black lines between two parallel lines and strings of criss-cross filled diamond outlines, c o m m o n on jar necks [Dwyer 1971:102-113]. Other forms include cups, to which white painted backgrounds are restricted, jars with slightly flaring

necks and unthickened or slightly thickened rims and sparsely decorated bodies, a pitcher (museum specimen) with a single vertical handle attached to the rim

and body (Jar Shape A), a straight necked jar (Jar Shape B) and a flared rim version (Jar Shape C), which sometimes has a roll of clay added as a thickening

to the outer lip [op.cit.:94-104L

Killke A plain brown jars have taller and straighter necks than those of Phase B. Bowls with an inflected body profile only occur in Phase A and black

elements and motifs of Phase B with variations in organization. Wavy black

lines below the interior lip of Shape B bowls occur in Phase A but not Phase B, Phase A buff ware jars carry less decoration [Dwyer 1971:118-124]. Cusco Inca pottery, compared with Killke CD } was found by Dwyer £1971:128-129] to be harder and smoother, to emphasize certain Killke motifs and composition rules

and to display repetition of exact designs and consistency of shape, finish and firing which are not attributes of Killke pottery.

Architecture is rare at the Cusco Valley Killke sites. Excavations and surface survey in the lower Urubamba Valley have demonstrated a pattern of

association between round and elliptical structures and pottery identified as Killke or Killke related. Of ten sites with round, oval or rounded structures only two lack surface pottery of this kind and these were where nothing

diagnostic was found [Kendall 1976:44-88,91]. Killke related appears to include sherds which share decorative elements or shape with Killke [see Kendall

1976:52-58,61,63,65-66,68,84-86,92]. 'Killke or Killke related' material is also reported from two surface sites, called Canchacancha and Chacamoqo, situated near Lake Piuray between Cusco and Urubamba [Sivera 1971]. The drawings are of

undescribed sherds so that the relationships with Killke can only be surmised from decorative features.

Surface Killke sites in the Cusco Valley were on hills and slopes above

the presumably agricultural valley floor, but rarely in defensible places [Dwyer 1971:24,43,145]. All contemporary sites in the Urubamba Valley were located on

elevated positions, such as promontories extending into the valley, ridge spurs

and mountain tops [Kendall 1976], but in some cases were remote from the valley floor and the occupants probably exploited nearby slopes eg. Ancasmarca and

Quishuarpata. It has been suggested that very high defensive Killke sites

beyond Cusco might have been retreats rather than permanent settlements [Dwyer 1971:1461. An alternative model might be drawn from observation of present settlements in such relatively high locations which have an economic basis

usually tied to a high altitude crop complex and a greater use of pastures for livestock, combined with outlying resource zones and exchange relations with settlements at lower altitudes.

The relationship between Killke pottery and architecture is suggested by Urubamba Valley excavations. The 57 cm deep floor deposit of one of over 200 circular structures at Ancasmarca produced charcoal dated to AD 1290±50 and AD

1468±91 [Kendall 1976:82-83, 97]. It is probable that these represent dates in the ranges of AD 1250-1395 and AD 1320-1605 respectively [Klein et.al. 1982], At Ancasmarca and in the 60 cm floor deposit of an oval structure at Huillca Raccay, Inca and 'Killke or Killke related* pottery occurred on the surface and the latter increased at lower levels [Kendall 1976:52-541.

Urubamba sites with higher percentages of later phases of Killke or its related pottery have been reported to show an increased distribution at lower

altitudes on valley sides near arable land, like Inca sites [Kendall 1976:99], However, of the four sites described, one produced no diagnostic pre-Inca

pottery [op.cit.:46], a second contained pottery similar to another site on a ridge spur [cp.cit.:66-68] and a third contained surface pottery from all phases

of 'Killke and Killke related' in the area of round-oval structures [op.cit.:44- 45], Killke Phase A pottery is widespread in Cusco Valley surface sites at

locations generally not defensible [Dwyer 1971:140-141,145]. Movement of

the Late Intermediate Period, is exactly the opposite of the pattern reported in the Mantaro Valley [Parsons and Hastings 1988:2243.

If the Phase A pottery indicates an early date, then the settlement pattern of a 'secure society' was established in the Cusco Valley, as Dwyer noted

[1971:1483, and represented in the Urubamba Valley, long before most estimated dates for the state organisation and expansion of Inca society, the mythico- historic cataclysm of the personage Pachacutec and for that matter, the pax

incaica. This should not preclude the continued occupation of high positions into the period of Inca state control, especially if they are seen as part of a continued complementary system of landscape exploitation rather than simply defensive. Small numbers of Cusco Inca sherds occur at such sites in the Urubamba Valley where overt Inca architecture is absent [Kendall 1985:312,331- 3323 and this would conform to a model of limited access by local settlements to prestige wares of the State.