of climate change are direct threats to livelihood and agricultural sustainability. A prudent adaptation policy is crucial to adapt to these changes. Based on localized socio-economic and geographical status, different countries follow different adaptation
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policies. Malaysia is actively involved with the climate change community to reduce GHG reductions. It is also focused on climate change adaptation needs though at a far lesser extent. Climate change adaptation came into focus since Malaysia‘s Second National Communication (NC2) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). The Regional Climate Change Adaptation Knowledge Platform for Asia, also known as the Adaptation Knowledge Platform (AKP) is behind the drive for climate change adaptation. The AKP was initiated due to the demand for effective sharing of information on climate change adaptation, and to develop adaptive capacities of the Asian countries.
The terminology ‗unknown until known‘ best reflects the current approach of Malaysia on how the impacts of climate change are to be viewed and acted upon, indicating that measures are reactive rather than proactive. Often, climate change responses are formulated due to Malaysia‘s international obligations and commitments rather than its own interest. The three conventions playing a key role here are:
i. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC),;
ii. United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD); and iii. United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (CCD).
The Kyoto Protocol of the UNFCCC which was ratified from an international treaty signed in 1992, assigned mandatory emission limitations to its signatories for the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions. The objective was to stabilise atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations at a level that could prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference within the climate system. Malaysia is a signatory of the UNFCCC and supports the Kyoto Protocol. At present, Malaysia being a developing nation has no quantitative commitments under the Protocol. However, the climate is changing and
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Malaysia like all other nations will have to face the adverse impacts of climate change unless appropriate actions are taken. Therefore, climate change impacts must be considered by Malaysia as part of its growth factor. However, being a UNFCCC member, Malaysia is bound to formulate, undertake, publish, and regularly update national level programs and regional programs containing measures to reduce the adverse climatic impacts on the human systems. Many studies have proved that developing nations are more vulnerable to the impacts of climate change but they are facing many constraints to take measures towards reducing emissions. Therefore, adaptation is becoming a growing concern as a way forward for developing countries, including Malaysia.
Malaysia developed a Non-Annex-I party to the UNFCCC on signing the UNFCCC in 1993. As a Non-Annex-I party, it has no obligation to reduce GHGs emissions under the Kyoto protocol. Ensuing the approval of the convention in 1994, policies have been formulated to deal with climate change in Malaysia. Presently, Malaysia accepts a
―protective code‖ and ―no guilt‖ policy, which supports its right to either mitigate or adapt as there are still many scientific doubts regarding climate changes.
Understanding the climate change effects on the budget and the social order as a whole, involves devising necessary inducements for Environmental Management. The Malaysian government has incorporated some incentives to promote environmentally comprehensive and sustainable growth in the 9th and 10th five-year Malaysian plans. The Malaysian government has recognised the lawful and institutional framework for environmental protection. The National Policy on the Environment has objectives such as, sustained cultural, social, and economic progress of Malaysia and improvement of the quality of life of its people, through ecologically balanced and maintainable growth.
The objective of the strategy is to achieve a safe, healthy, clean, and productive
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environmental setting for the current and forthcoming populace through contributing aggressively and efficiently in local and worldwide determinations to environmental preservation and improvement. Nevertheless, there is a large indecision owing to the weak infrastructural capability, inadequate manpower for environmental and adaptation concerns, and a deficiency of authentication of local information (R. M. Adams, Hurd, Lenhart, & Leary, 1998).
Consequently, the climate change adaptation policy implications need to be analysed in order to form a well-organised and successful adaptive structure. To this end, a novel economic representation is essential for the development efforts of Malaysia to join the association of high-income countries. However, it should not ignore the environmental influences of growth. It is therefore essential to assess the conservation endowments for sustainable growth.
The National Climate Change Policy and the National Green Technology Policy (NCCP & NGTP) were adopted in 2009 to report the persistent concerns of climate change. In Malaysia, these policies aiming at implementation of plans towards a low carbon economy and achieve sustainable growth. Furthermore, a RM 1.5 billion Green Technology Financing arrangement was formulated to encourage green technology. The programs were implemented mostly under two broad schemes: i) the Dominant Forest Spine project covering 4.3 million hectares in Malaysian and ii) the Heart of Borneo scheme covering 6.0 million hectares in Sabah and Sarawak. The projects on flood mitigation in urban regions, for example the SMART tunnel and the Sungai Damansara Package 1, handled flooding in these parts (EPU, 2010).
The preservation of biodiversity is also addressed in the 5-year Malaysia Plans, as well as in other plans like the National Wetlands Policy (2004), Environment policy
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(2002), National Policy on Biological Diversity (1998), National Urbanisation Plan (2006), National Physical Plan (2005), The National Forestry Act (1984), Environmental Quality Act (1974) and Fisheries Act (1985). These legal frameworks and other sectoral decrees and rules have delivered a basis upon which climate change connected policies and regulations can support sectoral activities (NRE, 2008). The use of the above-mentioned provisions created the background for environmentally aware sustainable development plans and strategies such as the National Policy on Climate Change that was drafted, established, and subsequently altered into accomplishment (NRE, 2010). Emphasis is put on mitigation and to a far lesser degree on adaptation methods.
Noticing that adaptation needs are inescapable, perhaps a unique policy for Malaysia has been formulated following ‗adaptation through climate change mitigation‘ and mobilising related non-government and government institutions and bodies, such as the Southeast Asia Disaster Prevention Research Institute, the National Security Council, the United Nations Development Programme, Environmental Management and Climate Change Division, Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development Institute, the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (NRE), Environmental Protection Society Malaysia, National Hydraulic Research Institute of Malaysia, the Institute for Environment and Development, Environment and Development, the Malaysian Environmental and the NGOs. Even so, climate change adaptation in Malaysia includes accomplishment by affected society entities, necessitating nationwide, government, native, and community level interactions. Consequently, many of Malaysia‘s adaptation reactions are developed pivoting around the notion of better-quality environmental administration, management of water resources, and protecting the agricultural productivity – each with the objective to generate results using the efficient use of the
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available resources as well as attaining financial benefits for the country and individually for specific communities. For this and many other reasons, less consideration has been given to support autonomous climate change adaptation in practice, and considerable emphasis is put on the evaluation and execution of prearranged policies to attain the above-mentioned goals.
Information regarding climate change adaptation for Malaysia is partially advanced and obtained from the ‗Regional Hydro-Climate Model for Peninsular Malaysia (RegHCMPM)‘ which produces weather and hydrological forecasts. Another projection model ‗Producing Regional Climates for Impacts Studies (PRECIS)‘ is in use in Malaysia for information sharing and assumptions on climate change influences and adaptation requirements, identification of entry points on how to formulate plans and strategies, and data distribution within and among sectors, and to guide the operations of a policy.
Adaptation at the local level can be reinforced and mobilised by concerned parties and public engagement, and policy cost-efficiency works such as reducing vulnerabilities and the associated costs. In conclusion, Malaysia has the basic information and capability required to initiate climate change adaptation in its growth agenda.
At present, Malaysia is able to engage in climate change effects given its strong environmental management programs which are supported by strong economic policies.
An example of such programs include effective poverty eradication program, and, food security and production programs. It should be noted that these efforts are focused on dealing with ‗environmental change threat‘ only and do not match the broader ‗climate
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change threat‘. As such, these efforts would not reduce the overall greater climatic threats for Malaysia.
Climate change adaptation in Malaysia demands actions by affected bodies;
necessitating nationwide, local governmental, indigenous and public reactions. Hence, many of Malaysia‘s adaptation reactions stem from enhanced environment administration, water resource management, and protected farming output – each with a background to improve output efficiency, effective resource usage, and enhanced financial benefits for the overall economy.
The National Steering Committee on Climate Change (NSCCC) was formed within the Ministry of Science, Technology, and the Environment (MoSTE) in 1994.
Afterwards, the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (NRE) was established on March 27, 2004. The responsibilities of the National Committee was to formulate and mobilise climate change policies including mitigation of GHG emissions and adaptation to climate change by:
i. Drafting a national policy, approach and activity plan to deal and adapt to climate change;
ii. Drafting and synchronising a countrywide operational strategy connected to climate change; and
iii. Drafting and harmonising nationwide action plans to achieve obligations as approved by UNFCCC.
In 2010, the Malaysian government created a National Green Technology and Climate Change Council, chaired by the Prime Minister of Malaysia, to harmonise and ease the application of the National Policy on Climate Change and National Green Technology Policy. Numerous Working Committees rendered support to the council as
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well as suggesting appropriate adaptation options. A Working Committee on Adaptation was created by the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment with members from multiple agencies to promote the implementation of adaptation programs at all levels in the country.
International involvement in climate change adaptation is directed through the Environmental and Climate Change Management Division of the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (NRE). This involves two-sided and many-sided collaborations, capability enhancement events, sharing data and interacting at countrywide and global levels. The United Nations Development Programme‘s (UNDP) effort in Malaysia is directed towards the enhancement of a National Capacity Needs Self-Assessment (NCSA) for Global Environmental Management. The objective of NCSA is to classify national level urgencies and requirements for capacity building and enhancement to deal with ecological and conservational concerns through the fulfilment of international commitments and obligations in natural and ecological diversity, climate change, and land degradation. UNDP also provides strategic and innovative policy guidance on climate change and works with relevant government departments and their agencies to strengthen their capacities to address the challenges faced by the country, particularly as they relate to the needs of the poor and disadvantaged people of the country.
The National Hydraulic Research Institute of Malaysia (NAHRIM) was established by the Government of Malaysia as a regional water knowledge hub for water and climate change adaptation in Southeast Asia. It was established in response to the country‘s increasing number of water-related challenges, including floods, drought events, deteriorating water quality of rivers and coastal bodies, increased usage, erosion, accretion, sedimentation, and last but not least, the anticipated impacts of climate
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change on water. The Institute for Environment and Development (LESTARI) was established to serve as a reference centre to deal with environment and development issues as well as to assist the government in policy formulation based on a holistic and balanced research on environmental aspects.
The Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development Institute (MARDI) along with various Malaysian universities are currently focused to determine the adaptation needs of Malaysian agricultural sector in a changed climatic context. For example, the University of Malaya - focused on climate-related vulnerability rather than adaptations phases and recently conducted multi-disciplinary research. The particular study titled
―Policy Challenges Towards Potential Climate Change Impacts: In search of agro-climate stability‖ investigated major Malaysian agricultural sectors such as food crops (rice) and cash or industrial crops (palm oil and rubber) under a climatic and economic perspective, quantifying the merits of the projected simulation and presenting an insight into the nature of the overall subject of suitability of adaptation options (Alam, Siwar, &
Al-Amin, 2010).
The Planned Activities for Ecological Sustainability (PAES) is formed on a regional level to pursue climate change adaptation requirements of the marine environment through its involvement in Coral Triangle Initiative (CTI). This is highly significant as the global marine and coastal ecosystems capture and store more than 30% of the human originated carbon emissions from the atmosphere through mangrove forests, salt marshes, and sea grass beds; each particularly efficient for capturing and storing carbon.
Degrading and destroying these ecosystems has been observed to damage the adaptive capacity of local users to climate change. Malaysia, as a whole, has developed agreements with the CTI on:
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i. Devising objectives, approaches, financing, timelines and actions toward creating the CTI Region-wide Early Action Plan for Climate Change Adaptation (REAP-CCA), and
ii. collaborating on a ‗climate change adaptation sharing policy‘ and capacity building in line with finding the common ground where the CTI can stand together on policy issues in regional and global forums, and work toward shared solutions (USAID, 2010).
Efforts are also being taken to ensure sustainable development and management of coastal areas especially to cope up with impacts of climate variability and change, including sea level rise.
Considering the water sector, the majority of Malaysia‘s climate change adaptation actions and emphasis has focused on integrated approaches to water management through the introduction of Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) plans.
Malaysia has also taken measures to strengthen its infrastructure such as the ‗Storm Water Management and Road Tunnel‘ (SMART), which largely contributes to mitigating urban flooding of Kuala Lumpur city.