6. REFLEXION DE UNA EXPERIENCIA ESPECÍFICA:
6.1 Los Músicos de Bremen
27
Michael Argyle 1 wrote an important book which reflects the
activities of a ’’Social Skills research group”. Consideration
must be given to some of his observations which are relevant to 26. ... . '
Ibid.. pp. 574*75. Living Bible attempted to avoid overcontrol and instead give adolescents the weight of leadership responsibility by putting the verdict into the vote of the students and by giving them the leadership direction of the units as specified in Book 4. This is appraised in SECTION POUR.
27.
As a leading British social psychologist associated with the
Department of Experimental Psychology at Oxford, Argyle directed the initial surveys on which the ’’Lifeline” project was based. See below, SECTION THREE, II, B.
classroom and group dynamics •
1. Social skills; Comment on th© Oxford Research Group
Argyle was concerned with
”... on© particular aspect of social psychology - the ways in which people behave to each other* It is difficult to think of anything which has more
relevance to everything one does while not actually asleep or unconscious.1*2®
If interpersonal behaviour even begins to approach this importance*
then everyone involved in the educational process must be aware of
it and help his students become aware of it. His findings through
this research group are especially relevant to religious education
if it is to have autonomic growth as an aim.
His provisional list of seven motivational sources of 29
interpersonal behaviour reveal the following needs:
1. ’’Non-social drives which can produce social interaction” (ouch as what Maslow called the needs of security and self-preservation)
2. ’’Dependency” (Including what Rogers called ’’acceptance”)
3. ’’Affiliation” (including what Maslow called ’’the need to belong”)
4. ’’Dominance” (including what Maslow called ’’esteem needs”)
5* ”Sex” (related to what Erikson called ’’intimacy”) 6. ’’Aggression”
7. ’’Self-esteem and ego-identity” (also presented by Maslow and Erikson)
The quotations that follow are some of his observations from 30
his research. They will be commented upon individually. All are
necessary aspects of awareness which* as will be described later*
Brie Berne considered one of three characteristics of autonomic growth
ll.?aX9hpJogy,ll,,of^^ersop^, Behaviour* p. 9.
29.
Ibid.. p» 16. The comments in parentheses have been added. 30.
The quotations are numbered for page references to The Psychology of
1# “Dominant people want to talk a lot, have their ideas
attended to, and to he influential in decisions.”
Therefore, if discussion is to he balanced, with all in the classroom or group having the freedom to express themselves and being encouraged to do so, there must he certain ground rules to keep the dominant personalities in check and to encourage the submissive personalities to participation.
2. ”... children of high status parents are more dominant - no doubt because they see their parents more often in
dominant situations.”
If this is true, the teacher must be aware that groups of young people with mixed social backgrounds may have a particular liability in, and offer particular problems for, group dynamics.
3. ”Aggression can be physical attack or verbal insult, i.e. attacks on self-esteem.”
The leader must be as much concerned over the one as the other. In group discussion within the classroom there is seldom physical attack; but verbal (or non-verbal) insult or rejection can be just as
damaging, if not more so, to the recipient. ‘The school must help the student to discover constructive releasing of aggression. Xt is not helpful merely to suppress it. The recipient must learn to cope with aggression, or rather learn how to keep the suffering of aggression from blocking growth towards autonomy. But the student who is constantly the receiver of aggressive action, physical, verbal, or non-verbal, may be the one who needs self-esteem most.
4. ”If A sits near B, it makes a difference whether there are other places where A could have sat, whether he is directly facing B or at an angle, .and whether there is any physical barrier. Closer distances are adopted for more intimate conversation.”
".‘1
16O*, '£J
7
There is a cultural factor here* For example, Americans arc
supposed to he more gregarious than British and seek closer
proximity, In a nationally pluralistic group there are different
norms of proximity for different cultures as well as varieties
among individuals. Further, if a group contains a clique, this
clique can arrange its position to give close proximity in a way
that forces remoteness on others.
5* MIt is found that people sit or stand closer to people they like.”
They therefore force others into a more distant position or keep
them at an impersonal angle.
6. ’’When a person is emotionally aroused he produces diffuse, apparently pointless, bodily movements. ... More specific emotions produce particular gestures - fist clenching (aggression), face-touching (anxiety), scratching (self-blame), forehead-wiping (tiredness), etc,1’ 4*
•J
■.^7. - ViThe meaning of these expressions may be too definitive, but the
point is that the awareness of non-verbal response is as important as tho awareness of verbal response. These may be in conflict. One may verbally say ”yes“ while non-verbal communication may imply ”no”. Both communications can be easily misunderstood. It is as Important to observe non-verbal communication (NVO) as to
attentively listen to verbal communication (V’C). It is further
important to acknowledge that the other person, consciously or unconsciously may be expressing in VG/RVG what he does not believe
or how he does not feel. He may not himself be aware of how much his VG/RVC is being wrongly interpreted.
■'1
1
7. wXn Britain a nod gives the other permission to carry on talking, whereas a rapid succession of nods indicates that the nodder wants to speak himself.”
Synchronising usually is done ‘by non-verbal signals* But a nod or a rapid succession of nods may mean, ”1 am not listening to you hut I want you to think that X am”, 03? a number of other things* Perhaps OTC must not be as tightly stereotyped as Argyle suggested*
8* ’’Facial expression works rather better as a way of providing feedback on what another is saying. The eye-brows provide a continuous running commentary, going from? - disbelief * mmpriee - no comment - pussslGd «* angry.” fully raised half raised normal half lowered fully lowered
Since these are basically the only positions eyebrows can make, and since there are many other emotions that one expresses, these
positions should not have been limited to these specific emotions. Also by this criterion, if one is merely suffering from a headache one may be interpreted as being angry. Specific areas of WVC must be less stereotyped and seen within a more general matrix.
9* ’’Several aspects of voice quality are correlated, though not perfectly, with emotional states. For example, an anxious person tends to talk faster than normal and at a higher pitch. A depressed person
talks slowly, and at a lower pitch 1 an aggressive person talks loudly.”
There are many variations on this theme. One who ej>eaks slowly may simply be thinking very carefully about what he is saying and talcing time to select words carefully, or ho may be trying to calm an
anxiety provoking relationship* Again one aspect of BVC must be correlated v/ith other aspects.
162
10. ”*Bon-ah.* errors like changes of sentence, repetitions, end stutters are caused by anxiety $ ’ah’s end ’er’s are not, and seem to be used to create time to think and. decide what to say next?'
An anxiety provoking situation, however, may underlie the reason why a person is taking time to think. He may be in a tense relationship that is making him fearful of not expressing his ideas carefully. Argyle was too categorical.
11. ”An open-ended question requires a lengthy
explanation rather than a choice between alternatives 5 the best way to got someone to talk is to ask this kind of question.”
But in a large group or a classroom setting it may be better, at least occasionally, to get all to participate in a selection of alternatives rather than one or two to speak at length.
12. ’’Interviewers commonly ask questions in a carefully prepared order? the more intimate ones come last, the most open-ended ones first.”
But young people sometimes respond more to a personal, intimate question, particularly if they are at the concrete rather than conceptual stage of thinking.
13. ’’Each person wants the other person to respond in an offillative, submissive, or dominant manner, according to his own motivational structure.”
But such a motivational structure may encourage manipulation which inhibits the other person’s growth towards autonomy.
14* ”To get another person to talk more the beat techniques are (1) to talk less, (2) to ask open-ended questions, (3) to talk about things he is interested in, and (4) to reward any thing he does say.”
15« nA should resist the influence of B. He must be able to ignore B’s reactions of displeasure when he fails to do as B wants.”
The last two quotations show a possible conflict between getting a
10s p, 45. 11 § p. 46. 12s p. 55* 13* P« 63. 14-8 pp. 66-67.
15? p. 76
person to talk more and helping him to grow towards increased
autonomy* If A speaks more by being rewarded he may not be learning to ignore B*s reactions of displeasure in other situations.
16. ”A number of studies have been carried out to find whether gase varies with personality traits* Bxtraverts are found to look more than introverts, and with longer glances* People high in the need for affiliation hook more, but only when the situation is a friendly or co operative one•*’
The observer must raise the question of the relationship between introversion, shyness, and cultural characteristics, and simply being 13.1 at ease in a particular group.
17* MJ.t used to be thought that an individual’s social behaviour was directly related to his personality.*.** However it has been realised during the last few years
that this is not what happens, since the same individuals can behave in a wide variety of ways on different
occasions* His behaviour will vary with ««• the particular individuals he encounters, since the
behaviour he displays depends on the personalities of the others, as ’well as on his ovm. Personality appears to be much less consistent than was previously realised? the same person may bo dominant or submissive, a
conformist or a deviate, popular or unpopular, in the course of the same day*”
It is necessary, then, for a worker with adolescents to observe them in a variety of groups if he is to discover something of the range of their behaviour patterns* He must not project behavioural
possibilities from a personality stereotype*
18* ’‘Introverts and extroverts need to be handled differently* feperiraents with school children show that introverts respond better to praise, while extr&verts respond better to blame;**. blame is ineffective with introverts. *«• One may need a
strong leader, another a submissive follower, a third needs acceptance of his self-image, and so on.”
However, the one who needs a strong leader must be helped to grow out
of his dependence. The one who needs a submissive follower must learn
164
how not to use another person for his own benefit# The submissive follower, if he is to grow towards autonomy, must grow out of oubmiusivenees *
19* n£f 33 talks more than usual, this will be mot by interruptions and negative reactions on the part of others, resulting in a period of silence by B. If 0 talks less than usual, others will address questions to him, and in other way© prompt him to talk more.”
If discussion is to be balanced, this should be the case# ’But often if B talks more- and has a high status in the group, he will be
permitted to continue dominating. Also the Os who talk less are often ignored by the group.
20. 11A normally silent person talks more with silent people, a normally talkative person talks less with normally talkative people♦”
The first part of this oomowhat conflicts with the views of Cole and Hall presented above. A conclusion of their observations was that
isolates should be separated and put into groups with positive stars. Isolates are not necessarily silent but if they are, their
participation, according to Argylo, will not bo enhanced by putting thorn with store talkative people. Probably both courses of action are appropriate in different stages of the development of isolates. The first step, to make them store talkative, is to place them in a group of similarly quiet people. The second stage, to encourage participation with others, is to place them in a group which contains positive stars. There is value in isolates having the experience of both types of groups.
21. 11A person may be under conflicting pressures from different groups of people.... There may also be ambiguity about what the role is,... There can be conflict between role and personality $ for example,
an authoritarian personality in a democratic organisation. ... Role conflict loads to anxiety, withdrawal, illness ’ and inefficiency, and to attempts to resolve the role
conflict.”
The school aust expose young people to experiencing role conflict and help them work through this conflict within group situations as well as one-to-one relationships* Xf the purpose of religious education is religious knowledge, the classroom situation can he tmchallengingly destructive*
22. ‘’Parents are a most important source of both self-image and self-esteem for childrens those who are rejected come to reject themselves and have a low self-esteem in later life*”
Teachers and other workers with youth, as indeed members of the peer group, can also be a source of low self-esteem*
23* ”lt is found that some people consistently see themselves as observed, particularly males who are insecure and dependent. It is interesting to find that females feel observed, especially by males*”
Therefor©, if a person does not sj>eak in a group it may not be because he does not want to spook but because he does not want to be observed*
24« ’‘Those who have low self-esteem are shy, easily embarrassed, eager to be approved of, and are easily influenced by social pressures? they ere clearly taking the observed role. ... Those who have achieved an integrated identity are no longer so bothered about the reactions of others, and are not upset if others mistake their identity, or react negatively to them*”
Low self-esteem may lead to shyness and shyness to ’’introversion”•
High self-esteem is autonomy enhancing, leading towards social maturity. If autonomy is an aim in religious education, then religious education must not be interpreted as unrelated to social education*
25• ’’People will reveal more to people they can trust not to reject them..*. ... If an interviewer makes some
self-disclosures, the other is more likely to do the same.”
166
There .is value in the teaches? revealing his own personality. But he must do this not primarily fox* his own benefit but for the
benefit of others. He must seek to be genuine if he is to encourage others to do the same.
26. "There is a good deal of token rebellion against parents during adolescence, more to establish an
independent ego-identity than through genuine rejection; most adolescents return to embrace the parental outlook and way of life by the age of seventeen to tv/enty. For those reasons adolescents require very careful handling.” Adults should not over-react to rejection of authority. This
rejection is necessary for weaning and essential for growth towards autonomy. But this growth is blocked if later rejection does not yield to acceptance.
27. "T (training)-groups were first developed in the National Training laboratories at Bethel, Maine, in
1947? end they have rapidly grown in pojaxlarity, first in the H.S.A. and more recently in Europe. The members of a T-group spend their time studying the group and the processes of social interaction that take place in it. ... The explicit goals are: greater sensitivity to what is happening in social encounters, and emotional reactions in others; clearer awareness of how others see one; greater self-accei>tance and understanding; more effective skill in dealing with social situations? acceptance of the virtues of the democratic style of
behaviour, with widely-shared delegation end participation in decisions; learning how to learn, making use of
feedback and seeking the help of others. Of these it is sensitivity which has been stressed the most....”
The rudiments of T~groupa should be encouraged in Secondary school classroom situations. But mishandled, they can be extremely harmful.
28. ”One problem about group methods is that there may be little input of new information to the group.”
This can have the effect of a pooling of ignorance. But the input of new information can come prematurely and inhibit the discovery process of the group.
29. ’’Training in social skills has long been a goal of education, and it was hoped that it would ho attained by the prefect system, toam-“gameo and other group activities. Recently there has been a growth of interest in the development of more specific training. Methods of classroom work, making use of suitable reading materials and exercises have been descx'ibed. ... Some training will be needed for the teachers involved, and there is a need for suitable reading material.*’
Training in ’’awareness” of the dynamics of the class is essential for all teachers,. Nevertheless, it is but a beginning.
30. “It is no longer necessary for a siaeable
proportion of the human race to be lonely, isolated, miserable or mentally ill through lack of social skills. Many thousands have already been trained by one technique or another, and training could easily become available to all. The most useful step would bo to include social skills (or ’human relations’, or ’moral education*) training in the school curriculum.”
The apparent identification here of social skills training with ’moral education* implies that they belong together. If initially they appear to be distinctive, ’human relations’ bx'idgee the gap. Social skills training assists the constructive development of human relationships® And healthy human relationships are essential for the morally educated person. Therefore, moral education requires training in social skills. And this area of education must not be