In the history of South Africa, father figures have not always been primarily associated to the child by means of biology. That is to say that in the absence (and sometimes presence) of the father children have identified other figures as paternal (Clowes, Ratele, & Shefer, 2013). Examples of these father-figures include the uncles, brothers, grandfathers, step-fathers, and other male figures who tend be involved in the upbringing of a child. Literature suggests that these father figures
became particularly important following the city-based migration, of many African men (Mkhize, 2006).
2.3.3.1. Grandfathers as alternative father figures
Literature seems to indicate that grandfathers played one of the most important roles in the development of the child succeeding the city-based migration of many fathers, who were soon followed by women and/or their wives in South Africa (Coplan, 2007). Women tended to migrate on account of the fear of being left by their husbands or significant others, as the men were often suspected of engaging in adulterous behaviours while alone in the cities. Other women left for the purpose of securing employment in order to help support the family. As women moved into the city, children had to be left with someone to care for them. This would often be someone who was kin to the mother and/or father. Literature suggests that the most preferred member of kin, with whom children are left, is the grandparent (Hank &
Buber, 2009). It is possible that this might have especially been the case in traditional times – both globally and also in contexts of Sub-Saharan Africa.
In contemporary societies, grandparents continue to play an integral role in the development of the child. This is because they are often available when the working parent is not (Bullock, 2005). Given the increase in teenage pregnancy and single parenthood, literature has continued to suggest and reiterate the significance of the grandparent (Bullock, 2005; Hank & Buber, 2009; Mkhize, 2006). Generally speaking, researchers have found that intergenerational forms of interaction can have a positive impact on the child (Kivett, 1985).
While this is important to regard, it should be noted that literature on intergenerational contributions has been limited in that it has paid minimal focus on the grandfather.
That is to say that most literature tends to take a generalised look at effects grand parenting (Burton, 1992; Force, Botsford, Pisano, & Holbert, 2000; Trute, 2003), while a negligible amount will specifically concentrate on the grandfather (Bullock, 2005; Kivett, 1985). In other instances, the literature will mainly consider the role of the grandmother and how she deals with grand parenting (Hank & Buber, 2009).
Some have argued that part of the reason that literature has not highly focused on the grandfather is because he often takes a backseat in child rearing, while the
grandmother leads (Bullock, 2005; Hank & Buber, 2009). Yet, it must be said that there is a definite need for South African based literature that focuses on the roles that grandfathers play in child rearing as such are difficult to come by.
2.3.3.2. Stepfathers as alternative fathers
Over time, divorce has increasingly become an aspect of society (Earnest, 2003).
Consequently, stepparents are more and more likely to be part of a child’s life. This is the case even in the absence of parental forms of death in the family. Literature also suggests that alternative father figures play an integral role in the development of the child when there has been a divorce in the family. Divorce refers to the legal process of marriage liquidation (Earnest, 2003). In traditional societies, divorce implied that one of the parties involved in the marriage had broken the marriage contract through adulterous behaviours or physical cruelty towards the other partner (Steinzor, 1969).
Later, a number of other transgressions were incorporated into the list of acts that permit one to request a divorce. These include abandonment, habitual drunkenness, and mental cruelty (Earnest, 2003). Yet Steinzor (1969) describes divorce as a wilful choice that is in line with our democratic heritage. Demonstrating a position that correlates with that of Steinzore (1969), Ernest (2003) states,
“In our culture, love and personal choice in marriage are logical derivations of our constitutionally guaranteed freedoms… there must also be freedom to change one’s mind. The image of the heavy hand of death in the marital vow, ‘till death do us part’, contradicts our traditions of liberty” (p.9).
It can thus be stated that inline with the traditional liberties is also the choice to remarry. This is the case with many global and African households. Literature appears to suggest that stepparents can play an important role in child development as they buffer against the effects of single parenthood. An example of a study that demonstrates the possible negative effects of single-parenthood, and therefore the need for a supporting parental figure, is the Third National Incidence Study conducted by Sedlak and Broadhurst (1996). This study indicated that children from single-parent households had an 87% chance of experiencing physical neglect from the single parent. It also indicated that children had a 77% chance of experiencing physical abuse. Other investigations indicate that the increase in paternal absence
from the home is disturbing because it is often associated with poor school achievement, diminished child involvement in the labour force later on in life, as well as heightened risk taking behaviours (e.g. which often leads to teenage fathering/parenting) (Federal Interagency Forum on Child and Family Statistics, 1998).
Although it can be said that stepparents contribute positively to the problem of single parenthood, other studies suggest otherwise (Anderson, 2005). This is especially the case in the South African context. For example, one South African study found that the children with stepparents are more prone to being exposed to sexual abuse (King, Flisher, Reece, Marais, & Lombard, 2004). Further studies demonstrate that stepchildren will receive less attention from the stepfathers compared to biological fathers (Anderson, 2005). This suggests the importance of a child having a biological father instead of an alternative one. However, it does not guarantee this importance.
As has been demonstrated in previous arguments within this review, in some ways, stepparents do affect the life of the child positively.