Macrolophus caliginosus (Warner)

of gender on research completion (Lechuga, 2011; Mehta, Keener & Shrier, 2013; Noy & Ray, 2012; Rice et al., 2009; Rose, 2005; van Biljon & de Kock, 2011). These studies reported on the advantages and disadvantages of gender. The included studies revealed that gender posed as an advantage and disadvantage when reflecting on research completion. The literature uncovered substantially more disadvantages to being a female postgraduate student than advantages. Disadvantages were presented as ways in which gender impacted negatively on aspects of the postgraduate experience that in turn resulted in obstacles to completion. Conversely, advantages were presented as ways in which gender had a positive impact on completion.

a. Advantages: Two core ways emerged in which being a female postgraduate student impacted advantageously on completion. However, only one of these is reciprocated by the existing body of literature and presented in this section. The other finding is not supported by the literature and is therefore discussed under the refutational section.

van Biljon and de Kock (2011) reported a significantly higher completion rate for female than male postgraduate students. Although this is the result of one study at one university, they made use of random sampling and the results are therefore generalizable. These results are also supported by the existing literature (DeAngelo, Franke, Hurtando, Pryon, & Tran, 2011; Wensvoort, 2011). The Council of Graduate Schools (2008) found that women had higher completion rates than men in the fields of Humanities and Social Sciences but not in male dominated fields such as Physical Science and Engineering. The reasons for

this are not made clear by the literature, but the fact that women have lower completion rates in male dominated fields may have something to do with their subjective perception of gender disadvantage, this is discussed in more detail in the appropriate sections of this study.

With regard to disadvantages, the articles reported on stereotypical gender roles, the impact of gender on data collection, isolation and sexual harassment, and the effects of gender on preferred personal attributes. These are discussed below.

b. Stereotypical gender roles: Mehta, Keener and Shrier (2013) discovered that female students do not appreciate being viewed in terms of stereotypical gender roles. This is consistent with the existing literature which states that women often fear being perceived as weak (Lee, 2008). The existing literature also finds that it is common for male supervisors to deliver feedback to their students in different manners, depending on their gender (Phillips & Pugh, 2010). This is because the female students are viewed as more emotional and the supervisors therefore attempt to limit their criticism for fear of an emotional reaction (Phillips & Pugh, 2010). It is likely that these gender stereotypes could negatively affect female

students because providing more comprehensive feedback to male students inevitably places female students at a disadvantage by means of withholding valuable information due to fear of how it might be received.

c. Impact of gender on data collection: Mehta, Keener and Shrier (2013) found that gender sometimes impeded the ability to freely conduct research. This problem is specific to factors affecting data collection such as personal safety and access to males in hierarchical communities, especially in developing countries. These authors go on to say that although data collection issues is not a problem faced solely by women, there are clear discrepancies in the research productivity between men and women with men consistently having more

publications and research presentations. This finding is reciprocated by the literature which  

states that the majority of publications are authored by men and articles with a male as the principal author are more likely to be cited (Quequa, 2013).

d. Isolation: Rose (2005) mentions that men receive more camaraderie from their supervisors than women and according to Mehta, Keener and Shrier (2013), women are at a greater risk for social and intellectual isolation as they do not have the same access to informal networking groups as men do. Women do not seem to value the camaraderie experienced by their male peers any less than they do and female students regard this aspect of supervision just as highly as men do (Rose, 2005). This finding is reciprocated by the literature, but only in certain fields. Newsome (2008) for example, found that females in the fields of Natural and Physical Science often reported the research process as isolating and lonely whereas male students generally did not.

e. Sexual Harassment: Another problem experienced by female postgraduate students is sexual harassment (Mehta, Keener & Shrier, 2013). Women who experienced sexual harassment from faculty members were more likely to perceive faculty as disrespectful and incompetent and these women were also more likely to drop out of their programmes (Mehta, Keener and Shrier, 2013).Based on the literature sexual harassment of postgraduate students is not a new problem (Bond, 1988; Fitzgerald et al., 1988; Paludi, 1996). More recent literature found that, out of a sample of postgraduate students from Life Sciences, Earth Sciences and Social Sciences, 64% had reportedly experienced sexual harassment in the form of unwanted sexual comments or remarks and 20% had reportedly experienced sexual assault in the form of unwanted sexual contact (Clancy, Nelson, Rutherford & Hinde, 2014). Hill and Silva (2005) found that sexual harassment experienced by male students is generally

homophobic in nature and sexual harassment of male supervisors is generally in the form of unwanted sexual advances by female students. Klein et al. (2007) discovered that sexual

harassment of women is most prevalent in male dominated fields. All authors found that students are usually unfamiliar with the process of reporting sexual harassment and that sexual harassment, if left unchecked, can lead to significant distress and difficulty

concentrating on their research (Clancy et al., 2014; Hill & Silva, 2005; Klein et al., 2007). Based on these findings, institutions should perhaps focus more attention on ensuring that students, as well as supervisors are aware of the correct procedures to follow in the event of sexual harassment and the support structures that are available at the university to help students or supervisors cope.

f. Effects of gender on preferred personal attributes: According to Rose (2005), females perceive supervisors’ personal attributes and values, as well as psychosocial support as the most important aspects of supervision. Males on the other hand preferred supervisors who held positions of power and could provide essential information and networking opportunities. This finding is supported by the existing literature which also found that female students value personal attributes above status (Magano, 2011). These results seem to suggest that there may be a gendered pattern to students’ appreciation and preference of their supervisors’ personal attributes.

If there is a gendered pattern to students’ preferences, it is important to be aware of this. Some of the articles included in this study found that male supervisors who did not fulfil the psychosocial needs of their female students left them feeling dismissed, inadequately supported and invisible (Lechuga, 2011). Noy and Ray (2012) found that female students in the faculty of science often did not feel respected by their male supervisors and Mehta, Keener and Shrier (2013) add that female students in predominantly male fields often had to masculinise themselves in order to be respected by their male supervisors and peers. This is supported by the existing body of literature which states that female students often feel they

need to sacrifice their femininity in order to succeed and female students therefore tend to make a conscious effort to behave in a more masculine manner (Newsome, 2008).

4.3.2.2. Language: This demographic variable was found to affect research