The purpose of this section is to present a brief introductory discussion of the research method used in the thesis. Qualitative research focuses on meaning, experience and understanding, thus to ensure a clear in-depth understanding of a research topic. Qualitative data can allow for a greater degree of non-sequential data that results in a cyclical and open-ended research process. This thesis makes use of a qualitative design to study the "properties, values, needs or characteristics that distinguish individuals, groups, communities, organisations, events, settings or messages" (Du Plooy 2001:83).
Deciding to follow either a quantitative or qualitative approach during research design, determines which research methods will be chosen (Mouton in Webb and Auriacombe 2006:599). When a social scientist decides to follow a qualitative approach, he or she is most likely to make use of methods and techniques associated with it, including ethnographic studies, grounded theory and case
studies. The qualitative research method that was chosen for this thesis is grounded theory, which will be explained in the following paragraph for clarification.
Grounded theory is a qualitative research method that uses a systematic set of procedures to develop an inductively grounded theory about a phenomenon. Only after data concerning a particular phenomenon has been collected and analysed, does a theory materialize. However, not all data collection and analysis exercises develops into a theory, some eventually only describe phenomena (Strauss and Corbin in Webb and Auriacombe 2006:599).
The aim of grounded theory is to build theory that is faithful to and illuminates the area under study. Grounded theory should accurately represent the everyday reality of a particular substantive area, be understood by those who were subjected to the study and those who practiced it and be abstract enough to be applicable to a variety of different contexts related to that phenomenon.
As mentioned before the self-defined purpose of grounded theory is to develop theory about phenomena of interest. The researcher attempts to derive a theory by using multiple stages of data collection and the refinement and interrelationship of categories of information.
The grounded theory researcher starts with the raising of generative questions which help to guide the research, but are not intended to be either static or confining. As the researcher begins to collect data, core theoretical concept(s) are identified. Provisional linkages are developed between theoretical core concepts and the data. The effort tends to evolve toward one core category that is central. Eventually, one approaches conceptually dense theory as new observation leads to new linkages which lead to revisions in the theory and more data collection. The core concept or category is identified and fleshed out in detail. This process continues and does not end. Grounded theory does not have a clearly defined demarcated ending point. The research project ends when the researcher decides to end it (Webb and Auriacombe 2006:599).
The approach followed in this thesis was designed to incorporate the elements that have already been identified by scholars in the field as being the critical components that must be considered for an impartial assessment of the protection of whistle blowers. Therefore, the choice of method for this study was based on the following requirements:
1.10.1.1 Gathering of information
In an effort to gather information and knowledge relevant to the field of study and research methods, the researcher relied on both primary and secondary sources of data. In this regard, two main research instruments were employed, namely the literature study and document analysis of the PDA in order to evaluate the provisions of the PDA. The aim of providing a documentary analysis of the PDA is based on the assumption that this is an area in whistle blower protection that that received little attention from scholars in South Africa, especially research related to the possible impact and outcomes (or non-outcomes) of the PDA and other legislation in terms of the interface between the monitoring of malpractice – and thus, the enhancement of whistle blowing protection.
The document analysis of secondary (qualitative) data complements the primary data generated by the interviews. Document analysis helped to verify the claims of whistle blowers in the subject matter of protected disclosures. However, it is important to note that these research instruments are not mutually exclusive; rather, they serve to complement each other.
The literature contains appropriate and relevant information on the subject of whistle blowing. However, the review of relevant literature indicates that studies of whistle blowing have been approached mainly from a foreign or international perspective. Indeed, the assumptions about whistle blowing on which this study is premised were propounded by authors such as Mbatha (2005) and Uys (2000b, 2005). However, these literature sources do not adequately reflect the impact of the PDA on cases in South Africa. To overcome this perceived deficiency in the literature, the researcher deliberately had to source local literature that addressed the South African situation.
1.10.1.2 Literature study
In the literature search the particular focus of the researcher was on the following concepts: Ethics, corruption, morality, whistle blowing, responsibility and information (i.e. case studies and factual information regarding whistle blowing). These include a host of publications related to the historical, philosophical and legal interpretation and related debates on whistle blowing in South Africa and elsewhere. Descriptive works that attempted to describe and outline whistle blowing were mostly academic, but also included publications of a more popular nature. The researcher specifically concentrated on the conceptualisation, as well as theories and models applicable to, these concepts.
Documentary sources from which secondary data was obtained included:
• relevant published textbooks and other literature; • unpublished dissertations and theses;
• published and unpublished research reports;
• articles from scientific journals, reference works and newspapers, as well as magazine reports;
• official and unofficial government publications;
• the Constitution 1996 and other relevant laws and statutes; • speeches and papers where appropriate;
• unpublished lectures, documented interviews, periodic reports and documentation of the cases; and
• internet sources.
1.10.1.3 Interviews
The deductive manner of the study, its largely uncharted terrain and the definitive role that particular points of departure played in the development of the various measures or guidelines and criteria, called for selecting information as a supplementary and hence secondary means towards an end. The supplementary data was interpreted and clarified in discussions with senior officials, specialists
and experts from state institutions, academics, and persons and associations of persons from other sectors. Based on the objectives and hypothetical points of departures of this study, the purpose of the open-ended interviews and discussions was to generate primary data from the participants, concerning their perceptions of the effects of the various identified issues in the protection of whistle blowers, as well as the relative importance they attach to these issues.
1.11 Terminology
Comprehensive conceptual clarifications of terms specific to the research appear in the appropriate chapters. However, to avoid uncertainty and ambiguity in the interpretation of concepts, terms utilised throughout the thesis are concisely defined below.
1.11.1 Community
A community in this thesis means a group of people living together in a specific geographical area, linked by political, economical, social and religious needs, interests and expectations and with the will and the ability to maintain itself (Scrutton 1996:73, 92,405).
1.11.2 Corruption
Klitgaard, MacLean-Abaroa and Parris (1996: 1) define corruption as:” … the misuse of office for personal gain. The office is a position of trust, where one receives authority in order to act on behalf of an institution, be it private, public or non-profit. Corruption means charging an illicit price for a service, or using the power of office to further illicit aims. Corruption can entail act of omission or commission. It can involve legal activities or illegal ones. It can be internal to the organisation (for example, embezzlement) or external to it (for example, extortion). Although corruption acts sometimes may result in a net of social benefit, corrupt usually leads to inefficiency, injustice and inequality”.
1.11.3 Dilemma
According to Brockett (1988:65), a dilemma may be defined as a difficult problem, a problem for which it is seemingly impossible to find a satisfactory solution. To this Makrydemetres (2002:2) added that a dilemma is wider and more demanding as a problem, however complex and difficult the problem might be. Dilemmas cannot be solved in terms in which they are initially presented to the decision maker. Dilemmas therefore arise from a situation that necessitates a choice between competing sets of beliefs, values and principles (Vyas-Doorgapersad and Ababio (2006:388). Gortner (1991:14-15) pointed out that the ethical dilemmas faced in managerial situations are primarily related to competing values.
1.11.4 Disclosure
Disclosure is the act of telling details or of publishing a secret. The disclosure of confidential information is an act of divulging information that should not be made public (Collin 2004:76).
1.11.5 Ethics
According to Mbatha (2005:16), ethics can be seen as a system of moral principles that is based on values relating to human conduct, with respect to the rightness or wrongness of certain actions and to the goodness and badness of the motives and ends of such actions. Ethics constitute the basic principles of undertaking the right action, based on written and unwritten rules of conduct. Ethical, for the purpose of this study, means in accordance with moral laws.
1.11.6 Governance
Refers to the function, action, process or qualities of government. It does not refer to government structures such as a cabinet or a municipal council, but to the policies made and the effectiveness with which these are implemented (Mbatha 2005:15).
1.11.7 Government
The institutions responsible for making and carrying out the laws supporting a particular policy, and for passing judgment on disputes that arise under those laws. It is thus the way of ruling or controlling a country (Collin 2004:106).
1.11.8 Organisational wrongdoing
Organisational wrongdoing can be defined as perceived criminal or irregular conduct such as stealing, mismanagement, health and safety problems which might have a negative effect on the organisation and the public interest (Near, Rehg, Van Scotter and Miceli 2004:226-227).
1.11.9 Public Administration
Public Administration is a term used to describe the study of selective practice of task associated with the behaviour, protocol and conduct of the affairs of the administrative state. The term could further be classified as the art and science of the management of the affairs of government as applied within the confines of the bureaucracy (Mosher 1980:8).
1.11.10 Public sector
The public sector can be defined as a collective term which refers to the public service as well as local government, statutory bodies, quasi-government institutions, parastatals and similar bodies (Clapper 2000:18).
1.11.11 Public service
Within public administration there is a public service for the Republic, which must function, and be structures in terms of national legislation, and which must loyally execute the lawful policies of the government of the day (Constitution of the Republic of South Africa 1996)
1.11.12 Values
Values are the conscious, affective desires or wants of people that guide their behaviour. They are, for the purpose of this study, preferences and decisions which provide the standards by which public officials live. Values, as defined by Hilliard and Ferreira (2001:93), are general standards by which people live, views about what is desirable. Values refer to ethical standards. Values involve deep emotional dedication to certain cognitive views of the value of objects normally relating to human activity.
1.11.13 Whistle blower
For the purposes of this thesis, a whistle blower is an employee who makes an unauthorised disclosure of information about criminal or irregular conduct, along avenues that are not specified (Bakman 2003:3).