MANTENIMIENTO PREVENTIVO PARA UNIDADES DE AIRE ACONDICIONADO TIPO INTEGRAL

Dieleman finds that Demotic proverbs in wisdom literature do not give a direct description of women, but rather teach the reader how to behave with regards to them.675 _{Teysseire argues that wisdom} literature as a genre presents women in conventional social settings that mainly dwell on the negative aspect of the female psyche (the exception is the mother who was highly regarded): it warns against the dangerous aspect of feminine nature, emphasizing its “dark side” which would prevail if women were left to their own devices.676 _{In this context, she identifies that the function of narrative literature was} providing concrete examples of fictitious situations in which the “stereotypes” (i.e. in wisdom texts) could be put to the test.677 _{Accordingly, she finds that adultery was the chief concern of wisdom} literature when the subject was women and that this concern was woven into the framework of fictional tales providing the audience with effective illustrations of unsubstantiated but powerful allegations.678

673 _{LCL I.}

674 _{See for example: G. Sperati, "Amputation of the Nose Throughout History," Acta otorhinolaryngologica Italica 29,} no. 1 (2009).

675 _{Dieleman, "Fear of Women? Representations of Women in Demotic Wisdom Texts," 11.} 676 _{Teysseire, "The Portrayal of Women in the Ancient Egyptian Tale", 107.}

677 _{Teysseire, "The Portrayal of Women in the Ancient Egyptian Tale", 108.} 678 _{Teysseire, "The Portrayal of Women in the Ancient Egyptian Tale".}

Teysseire’s and Dieleman’s conclusions concur on one aspect, which is that wisdom literature includes adultery when the subject is women’s dark side. However, Teysseire identifies a general focus in wisdom texts on the “dark side” of women, while Dieleman finds that it is only when the subject of (Demotic) wisdom texts is marriage and sexuality that the particular concern tends to be adultery.679 The dichotomy here is that one is generalizing women as dangerous creatures, while the other only refers to that danger when marriage and union is involved. Teysseire further posits that “If literature reflects the concerns of the society which produces it, one must believe that Egyptian culture was highly suspicious of its female members and marginalized them as a gender.”680 _{She accordingly finds} that literature presents an image of women, which is “extremely distorted” and in “complete opposition” to that of the nbt pr (Mistress of the House) and the social expectations attached to that role.681

As mentioned, Dieleman noted that when the subject of Demotic wisdom texts is marriage and sexuality, the main concern is adultery. This appears also to be the case in wisdom texts of earlier date (not recognized by Teysseire). But the extent to which adultery is focused upon (in Middle and Late Egyptian fiction as well) is rather minor in comparison with the size of the entire body of compositions. An early example is, Ptahhotep’s 45 maxims, of which only one alludes to the adulterous wife; maxim 21st _{mentioned above:}

If you are well­to­do and establish your household, be gracious to your wife in accordance with  what is fair. Feed her well, put clothes on her back; ointment is the balm for her body. Rejoice her  heart all the days of your life, for she is a profitable field for her lord. Do not condemn her, but  keep her far away from power; control her, for her eye is quick and sharp. Watch her, for thus  you will cause her to remain long in your house. If you are too strict with her, there will be tears.  She  offers  sexual  favors  in  return  for  her  upkeep,  and  what  she  asks  is  that  her  desire  be  fulfilled.682 

Here the audience is advised that the wife, when treated well, is a profitable field for her husband. Yet, caution is also necessary: a wife should not be given too much authority nor too little, i.e. a balance is       

679 _{Dieleman, "Fear of Women? Representations of Women in Demotic Wisdom Texts," 41.} 680 _{Teysseire, "The Portrayal of Women in the Ancient Egyptian Tale", 107.}

681 _{Teysseire, "The Portrayal of Women in the Ancient Egyptian Tale". Teysseire does not clarify what the social} expectations are for the Mistress of the House, but since she is referring to an “opposite” image, social expectation to the mistress of the house would include such notions as loyalty towards the husband.

682 _{Translation following: Simpson, ed. The Literature of Ancient Egypt: An Anthology of Stories, Instructions, Stelae}

Autobiographies, and Poetry, 139.

required for her to remain faithful. If that balance is not continual, she becomes unpredictable and pursues the fulfillment of her desires.683 _{Here, the exact word for “sexual favor” is “vagina” (kA.t),} which is the same word found in Two Brothers, where Anubis chased Bata in order to kill him because he thought that Bata had raped his wife. Bata then said to Anubis that the entire conflict between them only began because of a “sexually aroused whore” (kA.t tA-HwA.t: 7, 8).684 _{Intertextually, the parallel is} observable: Anubis’ wife as in the maxim had offered Bata sex in order to fulfill her desires. Since Middle and Late Egyptian fiction does not provide explicit descriptions of the adulterous woman, Two

Brothers is here a unique example in providing an overt attitude against this particular nature of women:

“sexually aroused whore.” Such a categorization of infidel women is not explicitly expressed before the

Petese Stories or Greco-Roman period.

Wisdom literature also reminds the audience that the nature of the husband, i.e. the manner in which he treats his wife, is influential on how she may end up behaving. For example the wisdom text of Any states:

Do not be firm (rwd) (against) your wife in her house. When you know she is efficient (Ax). Do not  say to her. “Where is it? Get it!”, when she has put it in the right place. Let your eyes observe in  silence (gr). Then you recognize (lit. ”swallow, absorb” am) her skill. It is joy when your hand is  with  her  (nfr rS iw dr.t=k Hna=st).  There  are  many  who  do  not  know  this.  If  a  man  desists  from  strife  at  home  (Ab Xnw? m pr=f),  he  will  not  encounter  its  beginning  (bw gm=f pAy=f HAt).  Every  man who founds a household (grg m pr) should hold back the hasty heart (smn HAty As).685

In its own right, this passage acknowledges the wife’s qualities, her “skills” of performing her duties in the household. Moreover, it focuses on the husband’s character, as the source of marital conflict: a husband can be controlling (Do not control…), ignorant of the wife’s skills and the joy of cooperation       

683 _{Various interpretations: Faulkner reads the a.wy as the dual of a, “condition,” hence he translates “kA.t di.t=s n a.wy=s} “A vagina is what she gives for her condition,” i.e. sex is the price she pays for being given a home: in Simpson, ed.

The Literature of Ancient Egypt: An Anthology of Stories, Instructions, Stelae Autobiographies, and Poetry, 167, n. 44.

Others understood a.wy as “arms,” e.g. “Eine Schlampe (aber) sollte sich selbst überlassen bleiben(?):" Burkard, "Die Lehre des Ptahhotep," In Weisheitstexte, 209.

684 _{kA.t “vagina” is attested in Wb., 5, 93) but the meaning of tA-HwA.t is still unclear. One interpretation is “"faulen,} verwesen,” as in something “old” or “used:” T. Andrzejewski, "L'expression KA.t Hw.t," Rocznik orientalistyczny 22, (1957): 59. Another interpretation is “perturbatrice,”i.e. a woman violating social conventions through approaching a man while having her period, cf. F. Servajean, "Le conte des Deux Frères (3): à propos de l’expression kA.t tAHw.t,"

ENIM 5, (2012): 103-13. Regardless of the exact meaning of the word, it clearly has negative connotations and the

translation here applied follows: Simpson, ed. The Literature of Ancient Egypt: An Anthology of Stories, Instructions,

Stelae Autobiographies, and Poetry, 84. This is the closest to rendering an abuse or profanity.

685 _{Reference for text edition in note 331; present translation: Lichtheim, Ancient Egyptian Literature. Volume II: The}

New Kingdom, 143.

in a relationship (many do not know this. It is joy when your hand is with her), confrontational (if a man desists from strife…), and impatient (hold back a hasty heart). A wife has authority in her domain (her house), where she is competent (when you know she is efficient…), and she will not cause friction in the marriage, unless she is pushed to do so (if a man desists from strife…).

The Demotic instruction of Anhksheshonq is more preoccupied with the infidel wife in comparison with the instructions of Ptahhotep and Any. But it also reminds the reader that a husband’s character can drive his wife to adultery: “That a woman allows one to have sex with her, is in accordance with the character of her husband” (i.ir sHm.t dy.t nk=w s r tA Amy.t n pAy=s hy, 20, 19). Accordingly, the three sources; Ptahhotep, Any and Ankhsheshonq, complement each other and acknowledge that a husband’s character can be the force behind his wife’s dark side. Intertextually, they all reflect that a balance of quality is influential in a marital relationship.

Ankhsheshonq, however, has general opinions on the nature of the wife, which may seem rather contradictory at first sight. 13, 22; 18, 15; and 25, 20 remind the reader of a wife’s unreliable libido as the drive behind her adultery,686 _{her heart being set on her own sexual satisfaction: “What she does with} her husband today, she does with another man tomorrow” (pA nty-iw-iw=s ir=f irm pAy=s hy n pA hrw

xr ir=s irm ky rsvy, 13, 22); “Do not rejoice over the beauty of your wife, her heart is set on he who has

sex with her” (i.ir HAty.v=s Hr pA (i.ir).nq=s, 18, 15); “If a woman does not like her husband’s property, there is another man in her heart. (i.ir sHm.t tm mr pA nkt n pAy=s hy gr Hwv i.ir-Hr HAty.v=s, 25, 20).

The remaining two maxims concerning adultery in Ankhsheshonq (21, 18-19 and 23, 6-7) concern the man who has sex with married women. One instructs that if a married man has sex with a married woman, retaliation will take place and the same will happen to his own wife, except on the floor rather than on the bed: “Do not have sex with a woman who has a husband. He who has sex on a bed with a woman who has a husband, it is on the ground that one has sex with his wife” (m-ir nq

sHm.t wn-mtw=s hy pA nty nq sHm.t iw wn-mtw=s hy Hr glg i.ir=w nq tAy=f Hm.t Hr pA itn, 21, 18-19).

The second specifies that a man who loves a married woman will be killed on her doorstep: “Do not love a woman who has a husband. He who loves a woman who has a husband, will be killed on her doorstep” (m-ir mr sHm.t iw wn-mtw=s hy pA nty mr sHm.t iw wn-mtw=s hy i.ir=w Xdb.v=f Hr tAy=s

pnaA.t, 23, 6-7). Conceivably, these two maxims may be understood in light of a differentiation between nk and mr. Literary texts discussed in this chapter portray mr as a reciprocal relation between two

individuals of distinct hierarchical positions in society: e.g. the love from superior to his subordinate, or between husband and wife. Killing a wife’s lover on her doorstep thus indicates the intrusive nature the       

686 _{Dieleman, "Fear of Women? Representations of Women in Demotic Wisdom Texts," 12.}

lover’s attempt to establish mr with a married woman. nk on the other hand, lies outside the paradigm of mr: a momentary action (“an hour” or some “time”).687

The teachings of Ptahhotep and Any accord with the principles Dieleman identified in Demotic wisdom texts: representations of women convey a norm that bad conduct of a wife may occur due to the character of her husband, or in the quality of the marriage.688 _{This exposes the durability of the} motif and rejects the generalization that wisdom texts solely focus on the negative aspects of the female psyche. Fictional narratives and wisdom texts here discussed all seem to recognize the positive as well the as negative aspect of the female nature, but Demotic narratives overtly characterize women as good or bad (mnx; wyhy), and acknowledge the nature of the male gender as flawed as well: Khamwase is an excellent example.

Ankhsheshonq in particular distinguishes between the consequences of adultery when the culprit is an active or passive participant in the adultery. The differentiation between men (active) and women (passive) in these maxims may lie in the intrusive nature of the active party. This is paralleled in, for example, references to homosexual activity where the same distinction is found.689 _{For example, men} who perform the act of mr or nk on a married woman are severely punished: death or retaliation. But women who are caught in adultery are replaced with a new wife: “When you find your wife with her lover, take for yourself a bride as well” (iw=k gm tAy=k Hm.t irm pAy=s nk TAy n=k Slv r-X sw 13, 12).

From a socio-cultural perspective, the emphasis in Demotic wisdom texts on prohibiting sexual relations with married women may be understood in light of Dieleman’s perspective of the “property- women-heirs” triangle.690 _{Here, control over property implies control over heirs. Producing and}

nurturing these heirs lies within the power of women, but men can never be absolutely certain whether their heirs are unquestionably their own children. Regarding inheritance, it thus becomes of fundamental importance that one’s own offspring are those who inherit the property left behind: anxiety concerning the dark side of women thus reflects fear of losing control. The answer to this problem in the wisdom texts is thus (ideally) severe control over female sexuality: women should only be available to their husbands, a system of control.691 _{This further explains the severe punishment of}

687 _{nk only occurs in Amasis and the Sailor between husband and wife, see page xx, and mr only once in context of} adultery. Overall there is a separation between the two concepts.

688 _{Dieleman, "Fear of Women? Representations of Women in Demotic Wisdom Texts," 22.} 689 _{cf. the motif of king Pepi in §(3.4)}

690 _{Dieleman, "Fear of Women? Representations of Women in Demotic Wisdom Texts," 44-5.} 691 _{Dieleman, "Fear of Women? Representations of Women in Demotic Wisdom Texts," 44.}

men who have sex with married women in Ankhsheshonq’s maxims: the active party causes the confusion of offspring. 692

In narrative fiction Cheops Court and Two Brothers differ in a significant point. The women in both stories suffer capital punishment for their actions: death and obliteration of their bodies. This motif may be interpreted in light of the significance of preserving the deceased’s body in Egyptian culture. Webaoner’s wife is burned to death and her body was disposed of in the river, Anubis’ wife was killed and her body was thrown to the dogs to feed on, while her lover was eaten by a crocodile that disappeared with his body in the bottom of the river. Without their bodies, these individuals cannot have a burial, mourning, or preservation of mortuary cult and thus no chances for life in the world beyond. Accordingly the adulterers suffer complete extermination in this life and the next: they become non-existent.

Bata’s fate, on the other hand, was different. Initially, his brother wanted to kill him because he thought that he had raped his wife. But Bata, who was frustrated over this false accusation and the fact that Anubis was unwilling to listen to his justified denial, confronted his brother and “got a reed knife,       

692 _{Dieleman had noted that being a virgin before marriage became important in Hellenistic Egypt. This was noted by} Montserrat: Montserrat, Sex and Society in Graeco-Roman Egypt, 81-2. Montserrat’s example was a marriage contract in Latin from the second half of the 2nd century AD: pMich VII 434 (Philadelphia: Arsonoite nome), cf. J. E. Grubbs,

Women and the Law in the Roman Empire: A Sourcebook on Marriage, Divorce and Widowhood, 126ff; J.

Rowlandson, ed. Women and Society in Greek and Roman Egypt: A Sourcebook, 136. An online edition of the papyrus is available at: http://papyri.info/ddbdp/chla;4;249. Here a Greek woman was given in marriage to a Roman citizen. The text states that the marriage was performed for the creation of legitimate children and that bride’s virginity was an integral part of this factor. Her father stated that he had placed her in matrimony, a virgin, in accordance with the “Julian law” concerning marriage, which was “passed for the purpose of procreating children. The “Julian law” (Lex Julia) referred to a moral legislation introduced by Augustus in 18-17 BC, encouraging marriage and having children (lex Julia de maritandis ordinibus) and establishing adultery as a private and public crime (lex Julia de adulteriis coercendis). The Julian law was particularly severe concerning adultery: a father was permitted to kill with his own hands an adulterer caught in the act with his daughter in his own house or in that of his son-in-law, no matter what his rank may be.Roman women in Egypt were expected to follow this law as their sisters in Rome. It is difficult to ascertain to what extent Egyptian women of Roman citizenship followed this law. Since all Egyptians were made Roman citizens in 212 AD, they would in practice have been expected to follow Roman law and women would (formally) have been expected to be virgins before marriage. But in the Egyptian language, there is no term that matches the definition of “virgin” or the state of virginity. Distinctions in terminology seem to have existed between nubile females who had given birth and those who had not (nfr.t, or rn.t) rather than those who had engaged in sexual activity and those who had not. The closest notion of “virgin” is in the Demotic passage (broken context): “will we be able to let her give birth to a male child without anyone yet having slept with her?” (sDr irm=s).Here the question is giving birth without having slept with anyone and not being a virgin before marriage. I accordingly do not consider virginity as a principle in Egypt in the context of the present discussion. References: “Lex Julia de maritandis ordinibus” limited marriage across social class boundaries (Dio Cassius, History of Rome, 54: 16, 1-1). “Lex Julia de adulteriis coercendis” punished adultery with banishment: both two guilty parties were sent to different islands, and part of their property was confiscated. Fathers were permitted to kill daughters and their partners in adultery. Husbands could kill the partners under certain circumstances and were required to divorce adulterous wives (Paul, Opinions, 2: 26.1-8, 10-12 & 14-17), see: R. A. Bauman, Women and Politics in Ancient Rome, 105-8. For Terms such as nfr.(w)t and rn.t as equivalent to Greek parthenos, i.e. designations for young women who have not given birth, cf. Green, "In Search of Ancient Egyptian Virgins: A Study in Comparative Values," 90-8. See also the motif in §(3.4) with king Sneferu and the nfr.(w)t. for the Demotic passage, see: Ryholt, "An Elusive Narrative Belonging to the Cycle of Stories about the Priesthood of Heliopolis," In Acts of the Seventh International Conference of Demotic Studies, Copenhagen,

23-27 August 1999, 365.

cut off his phallus (Sad Hnw=f), threw it into the water,” and became feeble (7, 9- 8, 1). In this context, Diodorus’ account regarding adultery may be recalled:

Severe also were their laws touching women. For if a man had violated a free married woman,  they stipulated that he be emasculated, considering that such a person by a single unlawful act  had  been  guilty  of  the  three  greatest  crimes,  assault,  abduction,  and  confusion  of  offspring.  (Diodorus 1.78.5)

The particular theme that Two Brothers and Diodorus have in common is the concept of rape, i.e. Bata was thought to have raped Anubis’ wife and Diodorus claims that emasculation is stipulated for raping a married woman. In this respect, Bata’s reaction may symbolically be linked to such a “norm,” where the member committing the crime was amputated. This principle is also reflected in the Code of Hammurabi (Mesopotamia: early 18th _{century BC):}693 _{a tongue that speaks ill is cut off (nr. 192); a hand} is amputated if it strikes a parent (nr. 195), commits an error in surgery (nr. 218), or steals from another (nr. 253); a wet nurse’s breast is cut off if the child under her care dies (nr. 194). Thus, in the same manner that theft could be punished with cutting off the hand, emasculation indicates a principle where the member used to commit rape was amputated. Another parallel to emasculation is in the Demotic