Inthefirstchapter,Ibrieflycontextualizethepost-formativejuristsandtheir variouswritingsthatIuseinthisstudy.Intheremainingchapters,Iwillpursuethe analysisofghararinexpandingconcentriccirclestorevealhowcertaintycreatesand
subsumesuncertainty.Inthesecondchapter,Ianalyzethediscursivesystemsthatjurists employinordertoconceptualizethefiniteformsofuncertaintyassociatedwithgharar.
27 IbnQudāmamakesoneofthefewovertstatementsthatIcouldfindabouttherelation ofgharartocapitalallocation.IbnQudāmaadvisesguardianstoinvestthefundsoforphanin real-estatesinceithaslessghararthantrade.Hethensuggeststhattheyshouldinvestin buildingsmadeofbakedbricksratherthanmudbricksincethelatteraresturdier.‘AbdAllāhb. Aḥmadb.Muḥammadb.Qudāma,Al-Mughnī,ed. ṬahaMuḥammadal-Zaynī,10vols.(Cairo: Maktabatal-Qāhira,1968),vol.4,p.181,¶.3106.
Intheremainingchapters,Iexaminehowjuristsemploytheseformsofuncertaintyto analyzespecifictransactions.Thethirdchapterdiscussesasmallconstellationof transactionsthatinvolveghararinordertounderscoretheroleofprivationinthe
representationofgharar.Inthefourthchapter,Iexaminethewaysthatjuristsemploy
analogicalreasoningtorepresentandanalyzetheghararassociatedwithtransactions.
Finally,inthefifthchapter,Iexaminethehermeneuticsofgharar,whichcreatesaform
ofuncertaintythatIcallaporeticuncertainty.Thisaporeticuncertaintypointstothe contradictionsinnotionsofrepresentationthatorganizeIslamiccommerciallaw.More importantly,thisaporeticuncertaintyunderminesanyfixedpointthatwouldensurea stabledistributionoftermslikeobjectivity,subjectivity,certainty,anduncertainty.
Finally,mygeneralquestionabouttherelationshipofcertainty,uncertainty,and representationhasprofoundconsequencesforanyunderstandingofrepresentation.This studydrawsintoquestionanyviewthatuncertaintyandtheunknownarethepassive givensfromwhichweadvanceinalinearandteleologicalpathtocertainty.
Uncertainty—whetherassociatedwithghararorotherfieldsoflearning—isnotasimple
contrarytocertaintyoragiventhatcansimplybeovercometoreachcomplete knowledge.Discursiveknowledgeactivelycreatesuncertaintybyexplicitlyand implicitlysettingtheparametersonhowrepresentationfunctions.
Nevertheless,thefactthatdiscursiveknowledgecreatesuncertaintydoesnot meanthatuncertaintyandghararlackanobjectivequality.Indeed,ghararallows
counterpartiestomakecertainaccurateandobjectivestatementsandjudgmentsas mentionedpreviously.Inamoreinterestingsense,thediscourseofghararhasan
objectivequalitythatonecanonlybegintoappreciateafteranalyzingthevarious
Chapter One
The Role of Uncertainty in the Construction of the Identity of Jurists
LikeotherstudiesofIslamicintellectualhistory,Ibeginmystudyofghararby
brieflycontextualizingthescholarswhoseworksIwillexamine.Ihaveselectedthe worksofIbn Ḥazm,Bājī,Sarakhsī,Shīrāzī,IbnRushd,andIbnQudāmasinceeachof themisanimportantpost-formativerepresentativeofoneofthemajormadhhabs,or
schoolsoflaw.Eachofthesejuristswroteleastoneworkoffurū‘al-fiqh,orpositivelaw, andoneworkofuṣūlal-fiqh,orlegaltheory.Infact,formostofthesejurists,theirworks offurū‘al-fiqhbecamemajortouchstonesforthecommentariesanddigestsoflater jurists.
Thischapter,however,aimstoprovidemorethananoverviewofthescholarsand worksemployedinthisstudy.Intermsofthetopicandmethodologyofthisstudy–a discursiveanalysisofuncertainty–thischapterwillexaminetherolethatuncertainty playsintheformationoftheinstitutionalidentityofjurists.ModernWesternscholarsof Islamhavedevotedthemajorityoftheirresearchtoexaminingtheroleofcertaintyand morebroadlyknowledgeintheformationoftheidentityofMuslimscholars.Their analysesrelyprimarilyonbiographicaldictionaries;thegenreparexcellenceforthe
claimsofknowledgethatlegitimizetheauthorityofjurists.
ModernWesternscholarsofIslam,however,generallyneglecttherolethat uncertaintyplayedintheformationoftheidentitiesofjuristsandothergroupsof scholars.Atmost,modernWesternscholarsdiscusstherolethatuncertaintyintermsof theelaborationofseveralimportanttheologicalandlegalplatforms,likeabstainingfrom
declaringfellowMuslimsinfidels(takfīr)andexplainingGodandHisworkings(bi-lā
kayf)asnon-cognitivism.Inthesecases,pre-modernMuslimscholarsinvoked
uncertaintyasbothapragmaticandpiousmeanstoavoidmakingstatementsthat encouragedandledtodivisivebehavioramongjuristsandnon-jurists.ModernWestern scholarsofIslamalsodiscussuncertaintyinitsmoreextremeandnegativeformof ignoranceasameanstoexaminehowagroupdifferentiatesitselffromothergroups.For example,bothMuslimsandWesternscholarsemploytheterm“ignorance”to
differentiatethePre-IslamicandIslamicperiods.Inthiscase,thetermignoranceserves todifferentiateMuslimsandnon-Muslims.
Inthischapter,Iwillexaminehowuncertaintystructuresandlegitimizesthe identityandintellectualproductionofMuslimscholars.Admittedly,uncertaintymaytake theformofanaïveinnocenceormomentaryerrorthatservesasstartingpointforthe eventualacquisitionofcertainty,suchasinthecaseofstudents.Inmoreinteresting cases,juristsalsoacknowledgethatuncertaintyisanirresolubleproductandadriving forceoftheirintellectualproductionduetoindeterminacyinherenttolanguage.Indeed, liketheuncertaintyassociatedwithgharar,juristsindicatethatdiscoursegivesriseto
formsofuncertaintythatareanindissolubleproductofrepresentation.
Below,Iwillfirstbrieflyexaminehowthebiographicaltraditionportraysthe post-formativejuristsofthisstudyasmastersofalargelycertainintellectualtradition. Thecertaintythatlegitimizestheinstitutionalauthorityofjuristshasseveralimportant qualitiesthatinpartstructurethenarrativetechniquesthatbiographicaldictionaries employ.Then,Iwillexaminetheworksoffurū‘al-fiqhanduṣūlal-fiqhtodetailthe
differentrolesthatuncertaintyplaysintheformationofjurists’institutionalidentityand intellectualproduction.