I. Introducción
1.5. Marco conceptual
3. WOOD CHARCOAL
The distribution of taxa through the whole stratigraphy is presented in the following The distribution of taxa through the whole stratigraphy is presented in the following tables, both as absolute values (table 2) and percent (table 3),
tables, both as absolute values (table 2) and percent (table 3), arranged according to archaeo-arranged according to archaeo-logical periods. As for the Neolithic, in which
logical periods. As for the Neolithic, in which two cultural phases were detected, the two cultural phases were detected, the data aredata are summed up in one figure.
summed up in one figure.
- 8 8 1 1
Phases
Phases PPcc PP PPLL PPii BB AA FF CC//OO CCoo QQ AAcc UU FFrr MM PPrr PPaa PPoo SSPP CCrr JJ ΣΣ
11 99 2200 115599 7755 33 22 9900 4411 33 11 44 77 5533 446677
22 33 2255 7722 6688 88 1122 44 66 8833 22 22 11 1155 1111 11 11 1100 332244
33 99 445533 221166 1133 44 1155 77 11 33 11 66 772288
44 117711 9922 55 22 55 11 33 227799
55 55 4488 2200 2222 11 11 3355 11 22 113355
66 99 4422 22 22 33 4455 22 11 1111 22 111199
77 11 11 33 33 88
88 2200 2277 7733 2266 2266 223377 22 11 44 22 22 44 442244
99 22 1166 1100 2288
Σ
Σ 2266 114466 991188 553311 4499 9955 55 2266 114400 446666 55 88 1111 3355 2222 22 44 33 11 7722 22551122 Table 2 - Distribution and numbers of carbonised tree taxa. Phase 1: Carolingian/Ottonian period, 9
Table 2 - Distribution and numbers of carbonised tree taxa. Phase 1: Carolingian/Ottonian period, 9thth-10-10thth centuries; Phase 2: Early Medieval, 6 centuries; Phase 2: Early Medieval, 6thth century AD; Phase century AD; Phase 3: Late Roman, end 4
3: Late Roman, end 4thth-5-5thth century AD; Phase 4: Early Middle Roman Empire; Phase 5: Roman, Middle 1 century AD; Phase 4: Early Middle Roman Empire; Phase 5: Roman, Middle 1stst-middle 2-middle 2ndnd century AD; Phase 6: Late Iron Age; Phase century AD; Phase 6: Late Iron Age; Phase 7: Copper Age; Phase 8: Neolithic; Phase 9: Late Mesolithic.Taxa: Pc:
7: Copper Age; Phase 8: Neolithic; Phase 9: Late Mesolithic.Taxa: Pc: Pinus Pinus cf.cf. cembracembra; P:; P: Pinus sylvestris/mug Pinus sylvestris/mugoo; PL:; PL: Picea/Larix Picea/Larix; Pi:; Pi: Picea abies Picea abies; B:; B: Betula Betula sp.; sp.;
A:
A: Alnus Alnus sp.; F:sp.; F: Fagus sylvatica Fagus sylvatica; C/O:; C/O: Carpinus betulus/Ostrya carpinifoliaCarpinus betulus/Ostrya carpinifolia; Co:; Co: Corylus avellanaCorylus avellana; Q:; Q: QuercusQuercus sp. (sp. (cad cad .); Ac:.); Ac: Acer Acer sp.; U: sp.; U: UlmusUlmus sp.; Fr:sp.; Fr: Fraxinus Fraxinus excelsior/ornus
excelsior/ornus; M: Maloideae; Pr:; M: Maloideae; Pr: Prunus Prunus sp; Pa:sp; Pa: Prunus Prunus cf.cf.aviumavium; Po:; Po: Populus Populus sp; SP: sp; SP:Salix/PopulusSalix/Populus; Cr:; Cr:Cornus masCornus mas; J:; J: Juglans r Juglans regiaegia..
Phases
Phases PPcc PP PPLL PPii BB AA FF CC//OO CCoo QQ AAcc UU FFrr MM PPrr PPaa PPoo SSPP CCrr JJ 11 11..99 44..33 3344..00 1166..11 00..66 00..44 1199..33 88..88 00..66 00..22 00..99 11..55 1111..33 22 00..99 77..77 2222..22 2211..00 22..55 33..77 11..22 11..99 2255..66 00..66 00..66 00..33 44..66 33..44 00..33 00..33 33..11 33 11..22 6622..22 2299..77 11..88 00..55 22..11 11..00 00..11 00..44 00..88
44 6611..33 3333..00 11..88 00..77 11..88 00..44 11..11
55 33..77 3355..66 1144..88 1166..33 00..77 00..77 2255..99 00..77 11..55
66 77..66 3355..33 11..77 11..77 22..55 3377..88 11..77 00..88 99..22 11..77
77 1122..55 1122..55 3377..55 3377..55
88 44..77 66..3377 1177..22 66..11 66..11 5555..99 00..55 00..22 00..99 00..55 00..55 00..99
99 77..11 5577..11 3355..77
Table 3 - Percentages of carbonised tree taxa. Legend, see table 2.
Table 3 - Percentages of carbonised tree taxa. Legend, see table 2.
As shown by the absolute values, the quantity of charcoal fragments exhibits strong As shown by the absolute values, the quantity of charcoal fragments exhibits strong differences through the sequence. The phases 1 to 3 (upper part of the historical sequence) differences through the sequence. The phases 1 to 3 (upper part of the historical sequence) are very well represented, as well as the Neolithic (phase 8), due to extensive sampling and are very well represented, as well as the Neolithic (phase 8), due to extensive sampling and flotation. On the contrary, the data referring to the Mesolithic and
flotation. On the contrary, the data referring to the Mesolithic and Copper Age are quite lim-Copper Age are quite lim-ited and should be used cautiously in the reconstruction of the ancient environment. All the ited and should be used cautiously in the reconstruction of the ancient environment. All the analytical data, with reference to the
analytical data, with reference to the stratigraphystratigraphy, are given in Appendix 1., are given in Appendix 1.
Altogether, of 2512 fragments, 20 taxa were recognised, 7 of
Altogether, of 2512 fragments, 20 taxa were recognised, 7 of which on a number of which on a number of veryvery limited fragments (<10). From this, it appears that the collection of wood was mostly made limited fragments (<10). From this, it appears that the collection of wood was mostly made in a restricted number of wood macro-environments, and this is valid for all the considered in a restricted number of wood macro-environments, and this is valid for all the considered archaeological periods.
archaeological periods.
3.1. C
3.1. CONIFERSONIFERS
The morphology of the pits in
The morphology of the pits in the cross-fields generated by the contact between the cellsthe cross-fields generated by the contact between the cells of horizontal ray parenchyma and the vertical tracheids is an important diagnostic feature in of horizontal ray parenchyma and the vertical tracheids is an important diagnostic feature in the anatomy of conifers. The pits, present in the samples, are only
the anatomy of conifers. The pits, present in the samples, are only of two kinds. The piceoidof two kinds. The piceoid small pits, with strictly elliptical opening, are present only
small pits, with strictly elliptical opening, are present only in clusters of two or in clusters of two or three and arethree and are a distinctive feature of the
a distinctive feature of the Picea/Larix Picea/Larix group. group.
In most cases it has not been possible to get a more precise determination in this artificial In most cases it has not been possible to get a more precise determination in this artificial group. When possible, this has been made taking into account the presence/absence of the group. When possible, this has been made taking into account the presence/absence of the Sanio bars in the vertical vessels, and a sharp/gradual transition f
Sanio bars in the vertical vessels, and a sharp/gradual transition from earlywood to latewood.rom earlywood to latewood.
Fig. 3 - Spruce (
Fig. 3 - Spruce ( Picea abies Picea abies (L.) Karsten) needles from US 214, Early Middle Ages. Scale = 5 mm. (L.) Karsten) needles from US 214, Early Middle Ages. Scale = 5 mm.
Another kind of wood is characterised by one or rarely two large, rectangular pinoid Another kind of wood is characterised by one or rarely two large, rectangular pinoid pits, with horizon
pits, with horizontal toothed trachetal toothed tracheids. The ids. The transition from earlywotransition from earlywood to latewood od to latewood is gradualis gradual (figs. 4 and 5). This pattern belongs to the section
(figs. 4 and 5). This pattern belongs to the section sylvestris sylvestris, and the fragments have been, and the fragments have been determined as
determined as Pinus sylvestris/mugo Pinus sylvestris/mugo..
More doubtful is the identification of Arolla Pine wood (
More doubtful is the identification of Arolla Pine wood ( Pinus cembra Pinus cembra) in some layers.) in some layers.
This is based on the presence of smooth horizontal tracheids, but this characteristic is not This is based on the presence of smooth horizontal tracheids, but this characteristic is not easy to find on charred materials.
easy to find on charred materials.
A further element useful in establishing the composition of the conifer forest around the A further element useful in establishing the composition of the conifer forest around the site was found in US 214 (Phase 1), with 601 fragments of burnt needles with a rhomboid site was found in US 214 (Phase 1), with 601 fragments of burnt needles with a rhomboid cross section (fig. 3), belonging to
cross section (fig. 3), belonging to Picea abies Picea abies (L.) Karsten. Their identification was made (L.) Karsten. Their identification was made with regard to the shape of the cross section and to the cross diameter, in comparison with with regard to the shape of the cross section and to the cross diameter, in comparison with those of other Italian conifers (table 4).
those of other Italian conifers (table 4).
P
P .. uunncciinnaattaa P P .. c ceemmbbrraa P P .. s syyllvveessttrriiss AAbbiiees s aallbbaa LLaarriix x eeuurrooppaaeeaa PPiicceea a aabbiieess Width
Widthaa 11..3311 00..9977 11..4477 11..7788 00..5577 11..1133
T
Thhiicckknneessss 00..4488 00..6644 00..4499 00..4433 00..1199 00..4433 T
T110000//WW 3366..66 6677..11 3344..22 2244..22 3333..33 3399..22
Table 4 - Dimensions of needles of some conifers from Italian Alps: a) width and thickness of the needles are taken Table 4 - Dimensions of needles of some conifers from Italian Alps: a) width and thickness of the needles are taken at a distance of 30-40 mm from the apex of the leave, on dry material, across the vascular bundle.
at a distance of 30-40 mm from the apex of the leave, on dry material, across the vascular bundle.
Apart from the dimension, the shape of the
Apart from the dimension, the shape of the cross section is a diagnostic element to dif-cross section is a diagnostic element to dif-ferentiate the
ferentiate the Abies-Picea-Larix Abies-Picea-Larix group from Pines. Amongst the latter, the cross section of group from Pines. Amongst the latter, the cross section of Pinus cembra
Pinus cembra needles has a needles has a characteristic T shape. Moreovercharacteristic T shape. Moreover, as usual in , as usual in Pines, the needlesPines, the needles of the Arolla Pine also frequently show a typical torsion, which is normally absent in
of the Arolla Pine also frequently show a typical torsion, which is normally absent in Picea Picea and
and Abies Abies..
The US 214, where these leaves come from, is a sample of
The US 214, where these leaves come from, is a sample of soil stretching between twosoil stretching between two Early Medieval buildings. One can suppose that
Early Medieval buildings. One can suppose that the combustion occurred as consequence ofthe combustion occurred as consequence of the burning of the buildings
the burning of the buildings or of a wood/branches-shed nearbyor of a wood/branches-shed nearby, where fresh leaves and twigs, where fresh leaves and twigs were stored.
were stored.
Conifer needles are frequently found north
Conifer needles are frequently found north of Alps in charred samples, but are not oftenof Alps in charred samples, but are not often described i Italy. O the Italia side
described i Italy. O the Italia side of Easter Alps spruce eedles are preset at of Easter Alps spruce eedles are preset at SotćiastelSotćiastel (Bronze Age) (S
(Bronze Age) (SWIDRACK WIDRACK and O and OEGGLEGGL, 1998) and at Ganglegg (Early Bronze Age) (S, 1998) and at Ganglegg (Early Bronze Age) (SCHMIDLCHMIDL and O
and OEGGLEGGL, 2007)., 2007).
3.2. B
3.2. BROADROAD--LEAVEDLEAVED TREESTREES
The taxon
The taxon Prunus Prunus cf cf aviumavium (US 30, tg 7) has been identified on the basis of the scattered (US 30, tg 7) has been identified on the basis of the scattered distribution of pores in transversal section, the rays relatively large (up to 4-5 cells wide) and distribution of pores in transversal section, the rays relatively large (up to 4-5 cells wide) and the presence of thin spiral thickenings in vessel.
the presence of thin spiral thickenings in vessel.
The taxon
The taxon QuercusQuercus (deciduous oak) (fig. 9) includes, at least in part, fragments with (deciduous oak) (fig. 9) includes, at least in part, fragments with very numerous latewood pores (>100/mm
very numerous latewood pores (>100/mm22) and for this reason they are ascribed to the sec-) and for this reason they are ascribed to the sec-tion
tion Robur Robur . The abundance of thin-walled tyloses in the vessels of earlywood, the elliptical. The abundance of thin-walled tyloses in the vessels of earlywood, the elliptical form of the pores ad mostly their small diameter (rage betwee 140-205 μm) poit to the form of the pores ad mostly their small diameter (rage betwee 140-205 μm) poit to the
Fig. 4
-Fig. 4 - Pinus Pinus syl- syl-vestris/mugo
vestris/mugo, radial, radial plane, from US 257.
plane, from US 257.
Fig. 5
-Fig. 5 - Pinus Pinus syl- syl-vestris/mugo
vestris/mugo, , crosscross plane,
plane, with with resin resin ca- ca-nals, from US 82.
nals, from US 82.
species
species Quercus petraeaQuercus petraea Liebl. (Durmast oak) according to the Italian literature (C Liebl. (Durmast oak) according to the Italian literature (CAMBINIAMBINI,, 1967). However, only a part of the oak charcoal fits this identification, a larger number of 1967). However, only a part of the oak charcoal fits this identification, a larger number of fragments should be differentiated only as
fragments should be differentiated only as QuercusQuercus sp.sp.
The taxon
The taxon Fraxin Fraxinusus sp. numbers in Italy the species sp. numbers in Italy the species Fraxi Fraxinus excelsinus excelsioror, F, F. . ornusornus and and F F..
angustifolia
angustifolia. On ecological ground, we exclude the last species, which grows in the riparian. On ecological ground, we exclude the last species, which grows in the riparian Mediterranean forests.
Mediterranean forests. Fraxi Fraxinusnus charcoal is found in small percent (0.4% of t charcoal is found in small percent (0.4% of the total) in almosthe total) in almost all layers. Its high fragmentation made it
all layers. Its high fragmentation made it impossible to distinguish between the two species.impossible to distinguish between the two species.
The taxon
The taxon Carpinus/OstryaCarpinus/Ostrya is present only in the Neolithic layers, with less than 30 is present only in the Neolithic layers, with less than 30 fragments. The distinction between the two species is
fragments. The distinction between the two species is based mostly on the presence (based mostly on the presence ( Carpi- Carpi-nus
nus)/absence ()/absence (OstryaOstrya) of aggregate rays. Unfortunately this feature ) of aggregate rays. Unfortunately this feature was not visible on any ofwas not visible on any of the too small fragments belonging to this group. As known, the presence of
the too small fragments belonging to this group. As known, the presence of Ostrya carpini-Ostrya carpini- folia
folia pollen in pollen in ‘Ötzi’‘Ötzi’s’ transs’ transverse colon has suggested verse colon has suggested his last journey his last journey was from the was from the southernsouthern side of the alpine range (O
side of the alpine range (OEGGLEGGL, 1999; O, 1999; OEGGLEGGL et al et al ., 2007).., 2007).
The taxon
The taxon Salix/PopulusSalix/Populus could not be differentiated, due to reduced dimensions of the could not be differentiated, due to reduced dimensions of the fragments and to the impossibility of
fragments and to the impossibility of identifying the type of the identifying the type of the rays (homogenous/heteroge-rays (homogenous/heteroge-neous) which would allow the distinction between the two species.
neous) which would allow the distinction between the two species.
No
No particular particular difficulties were difficulties were found found in in the the identification identification to to a a species species level level ofof Fagus Fagus sylvatica, Corylus avellana, Corn
sylvatica, Corylus avellana, Cornus masus mas and and Juglans r Juglans regiaegia..
The Maloideae sub-family includes common
The Maloideae sub-family includes common Rosaceae trees, some of which cultivated,Rosaceae trees, some of which cultivated, as Hawthorn (
as Hawthorn (CrataegusCrataegus sp.), Apple tree ( sp.), Apple tree ( Malus Malus sp.), Pear tree ( sp.), Pear tree ( Pyrus Pyrus sp.), Service tree and sp.), Service tree and White Beam tree (
White Beam tree (SorbusSorbus sp.). The criteria for differentiating these genuses are not yet firmly sp.). The criteria for differentiating these genuses are not yet firmly established.
established.
Several more taxa are present in the
Several more taxa are present in the charcoal assemblages, such ascharcoal assemblages, such as Acer Acer sp., sp., Betula Betula sp. sp.
(fig. 6 and fig. 7),
(fig. 6 and fig. 7), Prunus Prunus sp. (fig. 8),sp. (fig. 8), Alnus Alnus sp. (fig. 10) and sp. (fig. 10) and UlmusUlmus sp. (fig. sp. (fig. 11). 11). Also all theseAlso all these woods cannot be differentiated to species level on the ground of their anatomic structure woods cannot be differentiated to species level on the ground of their anatomic structure (S
(SCHWEINGRUBER CHWEINGRUBER , 1990)., 1990).