MARCO CONCEPTUAL

Chapter

General Discussion 6

Chapter

The overall aim of this dissertation was to offer a more comprehensive understanding of the meaning of women’s empowerment in the field of microfinance services.

Second, we systematically investigated the impact of training on the development of women’s empowerment among female microfinance borrowers. Specifically, we examined the impact of training and of women’s relationship with their husbands on signs of their empowerment. We showed 1) that women’s empowerment should be differentiated in a personal, relational, and societal dimension and that previous mixed findings can be better understood when using this distinction, 2) that women’s marital relationship is related to their empowerment, and 3) that specific training for female entrepreneurs and the involvement of husbands in training may be promising ways to strengthen women’s position in this context. In the current chapter, we discuss these findings in more detail, acknowledge limitations and suggest future research directions as well as infer implications from our work.

Summary of findings

In Chapter 2, we integrated previous findings examining women’s empowerment in the context of microfinance services and present a novel integrative model to differentiate between three dimensions of empowerment. Proponents of microfinance services have proposed that offering women access to microfinance services should empower them (e.g., Agier & Szafarz, 2010; Armendáriz & Morduch, 2010; Kulkarni, 2011). However, empirical evidence has provided mixed results for this relationship (e.g., Duvendack et al., 2014; Garikipati et al., 2016). Based on a literature review we proposed a Three-Dimensional Model of Women’s Empowerment to differentiate between three distinct but related dimensions of women’s empowerment. Specifically, women’s personal empowerment, referring to women’s personal beliefs and actions (e.g., personal control beliefs) at the micro-level, women’s

The overall aim of this dissertation was to offer a more comprehensive understanding of the meaning of women’s empowerment in the field of microfinance services.

Second, we systematically investigated the impact of training on the development of women’s empowerment among female microfinance borrowers. Specifically, we examined the impact of training and of women’s relationship with their husbands on signs of their empowerment. We showed 1) that women’s empowerment should be differentiated in a personal, relational, and societal dimension and that previous mixed findings can be better understood when using this distinction, 2) that women’s marital relationship is related to their empowerment, and 3) that specific training for female entrepreneurs and the involvement of husbands in training may be promising ways to strengthen women’s position in this context. In the current chapter, we discuss these findings in more detail, acknowledge limitations and suggest future research directions as well as infer implications from our work.

Summary of findings

In Chapter 2, we integrated previous findings examining women’s empowerment in the context of microfinance services and present a novel integrative model to differentiate between three dimensions of empowerment. Proponents of microfinance services have proposed that offering women access to microfinance services should empower them (e.g., Agier & Szafarz, 2010; Armendáriz & Morduch, 2010; Kulkarni, 2011). However, empirical evidence has provided mixed results for this relationship (e.g., Duvendack et al., 2014; Garikipati et al., 2016). Based on a literature review we proposed a Three-Dimensional Model of Women’s Empowerment to differentiate between three distinct but related dimensions of women’s empowerment. Specifically, women’s personal empowerment, referring to women’s personal beliefs and actions (e.g., personal control beliefs) at the micro-level, women’s

The overall aim of this dissertation was to offer a more comprehensive understanding of the meaning of women’s empowerment in the field of microfinance services.

Second, we systematically investigated the impact of training on the development of women’s empowerment among female microfinance borrowers. Specifically, we examined the impact of training and of women’s relationship with their husbands on signs of their empowerment. We showed 1) that women’s empowerment should be differentiated in a personal, relational, and societal dimension and that previous mixed findings can be better understood when using this distinction, 2) that women’s marital relationship is related to their empowerment, and 3) that specific training for female entrepreneurs and the involvement of husbands in training may be promising ways to strengthen women’s position in this context. In the current chapter, we discuss these findings in more detail, acknowledge limitations and suggest future research directions as well as infer implications from our work.

Summary of findings

In Chapter 2, we integrated previous findings examining women’s empowerment in the context of microfinance services and present a novel integrative model to differentiate between three dimensions of empowerment. Proponents of microfinance services have proposed that offering women access to microfinance services should empower them (e.g., Agier & Szafarz, 2010; Armendáriz & Morduch, 2010; Kulkarni, 2011). However, empirical evidence has provided mixed results for this relationship (e.g., Duvendack et al., 2014; Garikipati et al., 2016). Based on a literature review we proposed a Three-Dimensional Model of Women’s Empowerment to differentiate between three distinct but related dimensions of women’s empowerment. Specifically, women’s personal empowerment, referring to women’s personal beliefs and actions (e.g., personal control beliefs) at the micro-level, women’s

6

The overall aim of this dissertation was to offer a more comprehensive understanding of the meaning of women’s empowerment in the field of microfinance services.

Second, we systematically investigated the impact of training on the development of women’s empowerment among female microfinance borrowers. Specifically, we examined the impact of training and of women’s relationship with their husbands on signs of their empowerment. We showed 1) that women’s empowerment should be differentiated in a personal, relational, and societal dimension and that previous mixed findings can be better understood when using this distinction, 2) that women’s marital relationship is related to their empowerment, and 3) that specific training for female entrepreneurs and the involvement of husbands in training may be promising ways to strengthen women’s position in this context. In the current chapter, we discuss these findings in more detail, acknowledge limitations and suggest future research directions as well as infer implications from our work.

Summary of findings

In Chapter 2, we integrated previous findings examining women’s empowerment in the context of microfinance services and present a novel integrative model to differentiate between three dimensions of empowerment. Proponents of microfinance services have proposed that offering women access to microfinance services should empower them (e.g., Agier & Szafarz, 2010; Armendáriz & Morduch, 2010; Kulkarni, 2011). However, empirical evidence has provided mixed results for this relationship (e.g., Duvendack et al., 2014; Garikipati et al., 2016). Based on a literature review we proposed a Three-Dimensional Model of Women’s Empowerment to differentiate between three distinct but related dimensions of women’s empowerment. Specifically, women’s personal empowerment, referring to women’s personal beliefs and actions (e.g., personal control beliefs) at the micro-level, women’s

6

relational empowerment, referring to women’s beliefs and actions in relation to relevant others (e.g., women’s engagement in social groups) at the meso-level, and women’s societal empowerment, referring to the situation of women in the broader societal context (e.g., political representation) at the macro-level. We suggested that differentiation between these three dimensions of women’s empowerment will enrich the understanding of women’s empowerment and facilitate comparisons of results across studies. Importantly, we argued that time (e.g., time lag between an intervention and assessment) and culture (e.g., cultural norms influencing the meaning of women’s empowerment) are two important moderators that should be considered in understanding and measuring women’s empowerment.

Chapter 3 extends previous research by examining the influence of women’s marital relationship on women’s empowerment as a highly relevant contextual factor.

The women participating in our research live in cultural ecologies of embedded interdependence where relationships are central to one’s being and may impact women’s empowerment. Therefore, we examined the impact of one important close relationship, namely women’s relationship with their spouse. We investigated how women’s personal empowerment, assessed with self-esteem, and women’s marital relationship quality, assessed with the absence of intimate partner violence, were related to financial household decision-making. We distinguished between financial household decision-making on small expenditures that are traditionally within women’s decision-making power (e.g., food expenses) and larger expenditures that are traditionally not within women’s decision-making power in the context of our study (e.g., house loans). We showed that the type of decision influenced the importance of women’s spousal relationship in women’s empowerment: For small expenditures, both women’s self-esteem and absence of intimate partner violence were positively related

to women’s financial decision-making. For larger expenditures, only women’s absence of intimate partner violence was positively related to women’s financial decision-making. Importantly, these latter decisions are conventionally outside of women’s financial decision-making power, therefore women’s influence over these decisions may be most indicative of empowerment (e.g., Johnson, 2016). Therefore, we suggest that it is important to consider the relationship female microfinance borrowers have with their husbands when studying women’s empowerment, to reflect their embeddedness in the social context. This is reflected in the next two chapters, where we examined the impact of inviting (Chapter 4) or involving (Chapter 5) female borrowers’ husbands in training in the field of microfinance.

In Chapter 4, we were the first to systematically investigate the impact of the Gender and Entrepreneurship Together Ahead for female entrepreneurs training (Get Ahead, Bauer et al., 2004) and the impact of inviting female microfinance borrowers’

husbands to this training on women’s personal and relational empowerment in a randomized controlled trial in Northern Vietnam. Specifically, we examined the impact of this nine-month gender and business-training program (comprising nine training modules lasting approximately 9 hours in total; and weekly repetitions) on female borrowers’ personal control beliefs (personal empowerment), relational friction and financial decision-making within the household (relational empowerment) in the short- and medium-run, respectively six and twelve months after the training. We found that access to the GET Ahead training improved women’s empowerment on all three aspects from before the training to twelve months after the training. However, inviting female borrowers’ husbands to the training did not seem to add to these effects.

Importantly, only a small percentage of the invited husbands participated in the training (on average 24.1% of the invited husbands participated in each offered training

relational empowerment, referring to women’s beliefs and actions in relation to relevant others (e.g., women’s engagement in social groups) at the meso-level, and women’s societal empowerment, referring to the situation of women in the broader societal context (e.g., political representation) at the macro-level. We suggested that differentiation between these three dimensions of women’s empowerment will enrich the understanding of women’s empowerment and facilitate comparisons of results across studies. Importantly, we argued that time (e.g., time lag between an intervention and assessment) and culture (e.g., cultural norms influencing the meaning of women’s empowerment) are two important moderators that should be considered in understanding and measuring women’s empowerment.

Chapter 3 extends previous research by examining the influence of women’s marital relationship on women’s empowerment as a highly relevant contextual factor.

The women participating in our research live in cultural ecologies of embedded interdependence where relationships are central to one’s being and may impact women’s empowerment. Therefore, we examined the impact of one important close relationship, namely women’s relationship with their spouse. We investigated how women’s personal empowerment, assessed with self-esteem, and women’s marital relationship quality, assessed with the absence of intimate partner violence, were related to financial household decision-making. We distinguished between financial household decision-making on small expenditures that are traditionally within women’s decision-making power (e.g., food expenses) and larger expenditures that are traditionally not within women’s decision-making power in the context of our study (e.g., house loans). We showed that the type of decision influenced the importance of women’s spousal relationship in women’s empowerment: For small expenditures, both women’s self-esteem and absence of intimate partner violence were positively related

to women’s financial decision-making. For larger expenditures, only women’s absence of intimate partner violence was positively related to women’s financial decision-making. Importantly, these latter decisions are conventionally outside of women’s financial decision-making power, therefore women’s influence over these decisions may be most indicative of empowerment (e.g., Johnson, 2016). Therefore, we suggest that it is important to consider the relationship female microfinance borrowers have with their husbands when studying women’s empowerment, to reflect their embeddedness in the social context. This is reflected in the next two chapters, where we examined the impact of inviting (Chapter 4) or involving (Chapter 5) female borrowers’ husbands in training in the field of microfinance.

In Chapter 4, we were the first to systematically investigate the impact of the Gender and Entrepreneurship Together Ahead for female entrepreneurs training (Get Ahead, Bauer et al., 2004) and the impact of inviting female microfinance borrowers’

husbands to this training on women’s personal and relational empowerment in a randomized controlled trial in Northern Vietnam. Specifically, we examined the impact of this nine-month gender and business-training program (comprising nine training modules lasting approximately 9 hours in total; and weekly repetitions) on female borrowers’ personal control beliefs (personal empowerment), relational friction and financial decision-making within the household (relational empowerment) in the short- and medium-run, respectively six and twelve months after the training. We found that access to the GET Ahead training improved women’s empowerment on all three aspects from before the training to twelve months after the training. However, inviting female borrowers’ husbands to the training did not seem to add to these effects.

Importantly, only a small percentage of the invited husbands participated in the training (on average 24.1% of the invited husbands participated in each offered training

relational empowerment, referring to women’s beliefs and actions in relation to relevant others (e.g., women’s engagement in social groups) at the meso-level, and women’s societal empowerment, referring to the situation of women in the broader societal context (e.g., political representation) at the macro-level. We suggested that differentiation between these three dimensions of women’s empowerment will enrich the understanding of women’s empowerment and facilitate comparisons of results across studies. Importantly, we argued that time (e.g., time lag between an intervention and assessment) and culture (e.g., cultural norms influencing the meaning of women’s empowerment) are two important moderators that should be considered in understanding and measuring women’s empowerment.

Chapter 3 extends previous research by examining the influence of women’s marital relationship on women’s empowerment as a highly relevant contextual factor.

The women participating in our research live in cultural ecologies of embedded interdependence where relationships are central to one’s being and may impact women’s empowerment. Therefore, we examined the impact of one important close relationship, namely women’s relationship with their spouse. We investigated how women’s personal empowerment, assessed with self-esteem, and women’s marital relationship quality, assessed with the absence of intimate partner violence, were related to financial household decision-making. We distinguished between financial household decision-making on small expenditures that are traditionally within women’s decision-making power (e.g., food expenses) and larger expenditures that are traditionally not within women’s decision-making power in the context of our study (e.g., house loans). We showed that the type of decision influenced the importance of women’s spousal relationship in women’s empowerment: For small expenditures, both women’s self-esteem and absence of intimate partner violence were positively related

to women’s financial decision-making. For larger expenditures, only women’s absence of intimate partner violence was positively related to women’s financial decision-making. Importantly, these latter decisions are conventionally outside of women’s financial decision-making power, therefore women’s influence over these decisions may be most indicative of empowerment (e.g., Johnson, 2016). Therefore, we suggest that it is important to consider the relationship female microfinance borrowers have with their husbands when studying women’s empowerment, to reflect their embeddedness in the social context. This is reflected in the next two chapters, where we examined the impact of inviting (Chapter 4) or involving (Chapter 5) female borrowers’ husbands in training in the field of microfinance.

In Chapter 4, we were the first to systematically investigate the impact of the Gender and Entrepreneurship Together Ahead for female entrepreneurs training (Get Ahead, Bauer et al., 2004) and the impact of inviting female microfinance borrowers’

husbands to this training on women’s personal and relational empowerment in a randomized controlled trial in Northern Vietnam. Specifically, we examined the impact of this nine-month gender and business-training program (comprising nine training modules lasting approximately 9 hours in total; and weekly repetitions) on female borrowers’ personal control beliefs (personal empowerment), relational friction and financial decision-making within the household (relational empowerment) in the short- and medium-run, respectively six and twelve months after the training. We found that access to the GET Ahead training improved women’s empowerment on all three aspects from before the training to twelve months after the training. However, inviting female borrowers’ husbands to the training did not seem to add to these effects.

Importantly, only a small percentage of the invited husbands participated in the training (on average 24.1% of the invited husbands participated in each offered training

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relational empowerment, referring to women’s beliefs and actions in relation to relevant others (e.g., women’s engagement in social groups) at the meso-level, and women’s societal empowerment, referring to the situation of women in the broader societal context (e.g., political representation) at the macro-level. We suggested that differentiation between these three dimensions of women’s empowerment will enrich the understanding of women’s empowerment and facilitate comparisons of results across studies. Importantly, we argued that time (e.g., time lag between an intervention and assessment) and culture (e.g., cultural norms influencing the meaning of women’s empowerment) are two important moderators that should be considered in understanding and measuring women’s empowerment.

Chapter 3 extends previous research by examining the influence of women’s marital relationship on women’s empowerment as a highly relevant contextual factor.

The women participating in our research live in cultural ecologies of embedded interdependence where relationships are central to one’s being and may impact women’s empowerment. Therefore, we examined the impact of one important close relationship, namely women’s relationship with their spouse. We investigated how women’s personal empowerment, assessed with self-esteem, and women’s marital relationship quality, assessed with the absence of intimate partner violence, were related to financial household decision-making. We distinguished between financial household decision-making on small expenditures that are traditionally within women’s decision-making power (e.g., food expenses) and larger expenditures that are traditionally not within women’s decision-making power in the context of our study (e.g., house loans). We showed that the type of decision influenced the importance of women’s spousal relationship in women’s empowerment: For small expenditures, both women’s self-esteem and absence of intimate partner violence were positively related

to women’s financial decision-making. For larger expenditures, only women’s absence of intimate partner violence was positively related to women’s financial decision-making. Importantly, these latter decisions are conventionally outside of women’s financial decision-making power, therefore women’s influence over these decisions may be most indicative of empowerment (e.g., Johnson, 2016). Therefore, we suggest that it is important to consider the relationship female microfinance borrowers have with their husbands when studying women’s empowerment, to reflect their embeddedness in the social context. This is reflected in the next two chapters, where we examined the impact of inviting (Chapter 4) or involving (Chapter 5) female borrowers’ husbands in training in the field of microfinance.

In Chapter 4, we were the first to systematically investigate the impact of the Gender and Entrepreneurship Together Ahead for female entrepreneurs training (Get Ahead, Bauer et al., 2004) and the impact of inviting female microfinance borrowers’

husbands to this training on women’s personal and relational empowerment in a

husbands to this training on women’s personal and relational empowerment in a