Marco Histórico

The experience of the various social provisions may be expected to enhance MIL for a number of reasons. Krause (2012) argues that developing a sense of MIL is a complex, difficult task involving making sense of one’s life and one’s experiences; developing a clear sense of direction and purpose; and formulating and working towards goals consistent with one’s life purpose. Advice, information, and tangible assistance may facilitate these processes and in turn contribute to MIL. In support of this, an

examination of the relationship between the various social provisions, stress, and mental health among older adults found that none of the provisions predicted mental health directly. However, under conditions of high stress, reliable alliance and guidance were the two provisions which positively related to mental well-being (Cutrona, Russell, & Rose, 1986). Cutrona et al. suggest that older adults who experience these provisions are able to use these resources in the context of stressful events. As suggested,

developing a sense of MIL can be a complex, and conceivably stressful, task, thus the assistance related provisions of guidance and reliable alliance may be important factors for enhancing MIL among older adults.

Existing theories provide a rationale for the proposition that the non-assistance related provisions may also be expected to enhance MIL. As mentioned, social integration provides a sense of identity which, according to Social Identity Theory (SIT), is

essential for meaningfulness. SIT proposes that an individual’s self-concept consists of personal and social identities (Tajfel, 1978). Personal identities are defined as the part of self-concept in which individuals define themselves in terms of their interests, attitudes, and behaviours that differ from those of other individuals. In contrast, social identity is the part of self-concept which is derived from group membership and the value and emotional significance of that membership (Tajfel, 1978). Social identities provide a

foundation for perceptions of connectedness and collective values. They also provide a foundation for trust which enables the pursuit and attainment of collective goals which would be unattainable as an individual (Cruwys, Haslam, Dingle, Haslam, & Jetten, 2014). Thus, social integration provides a sense of social identity which in turn lays a foundation for establishing values and pursing goals, both of which are important components of MIL.

Similarly, the provisions of reassurance, attachment, and opportunity for nurturance may enhance MIL. As discussed, one of the characteristics of the cognitive component of MIL is a sense that one matters. Reassurance, attachment, and opportunity for nurturance potentially contribute to this sense of mattering by conveying to the

individual that they are valued and important. Furthermore, Socioemotional Selectivity theory (Cartensen, Isaacowitz, & Charles, 1999) suggests that these provisions may be particularly important for older adults. Socioemotional Selectivity theory suggests that older adulthood involves the development of a greater preference for emotionally meaningful goals; optimising emotional experience becomes a key concern and so emotionally meaningful social relationships are prioritised. This was confirmed by Krause (2007) who found that emotional support was more strongly associated with MIL than informational or tangible support. Thus, it may be expected that the non- assistance provisions which involve greater emotional closeness than assistance related provisions will be more strongly related to MIL.

Finally, Weiss (1974) suggests that an opportunity for nurturance or, more specifically, feeling needed by others and perceiving that others rely upon one for their well-being, may be particularly important for a sense of MIL. Weiss proposed that a lack of this provision results in a sense of existential meaninglessness. As with the other non- assistance related provisions, opportunity for nurturance may enhance MIL by

providing a sense of purpose and belonging as well as enhancing self-esteem. However, research by Van Orden, Bamonti, King, and Duberstein (2012) provides an avenue for understanding how opportunity for nurturance may convey a particular advantage in terms of enhancing MIL. Van Orden et al. (2012) situate their research within the Interpersonal Theory of Suicide which suggests that the need to contribute to the well- being of others and the need to belong are fundamental needs. Failure to meet these needs results in perceived burdensomeness and thwarted belongingness and these two factors are proximal causes of suicidal ideation. Drawing from this theory, Van Orden et al. (2012) conducted a longitudinal study to examine the relationship between perceived burdensomeness, defined as “a mental state characterised by the belief that others would ‘be better off if I were gone’” (p. 855) and MIL among older adults. Consistent with their hypothesis, they found that perceived burdensomeness predicted a decline in meaning in life for older adults. This finding is of particular importance because, as noted earlier, the reception of support is not always beneficial to the recipient and has the potential to induce feelings akin to burdensomeness. For example, in their sample of Singaporean older adults, Ang and Malhotra (2016) found that receiving social support could result in feelings of dependency and in turn increases in depressive

symptomology. In contrast, opportunity for nurturance may counter feelings of burdensomeness. For example, Thomas (2010) found that giving support was more important for well-being among older adults than receiving support and suggests that this is due to the act of giving enabling participants to feel useful and independent. Thus, opportunity for nurturance, perceiving that others rely upon one for their well- being, may be particularly important for enhancing MIL among older adults by preventing perceptions of burdensomeness.