Matriz de estrategias versus objetivos

As mentioned in section 2.1, Geiser served as Director of the Polytechnic twice, first from 1881-1887 and then again from 1891-1895. In 1881 the lecturing staff were given more privileges (cf. appendix B); one of these was that the Lecturers’ General Assembly (“Professorenkonferenz”) now elected the Polytechnic’s Director, with the School Board only making the official appointment. Before that the Director was chosen by the School Board, the staff had no say in the matter. Geiser was thus the first Director to be elected by his colleagues [cf. 3b]. He also served as Deputy Director from 1887-1891 and from 1895-1899. Note that the Director and his Deputy were always appointed for two years at a time.

Whilst the School Board President was responsible for all the policy decisions and staff appointments at the Polytechnic, the Director seems to have had a more administrative role – possibly remotely comparable to the roles of Proctor and Academic Registrar at the University of St Andrews. Unfortunately, I have not been able to find any descriptions of the Director’s duties; the information in this paragraph is based on comments found in various books and biographies.

The Polytechnic’s regulations, set out in the course catalogue for each semester, state that students had to submit any course choices and other paperwork, such as proof of address, to the Director’s Office. Thus, Geiser would have had to deal with administrative matters such as matriculation, student records, and possibly graduation. Furthermore, it seems that he was in charge of student discipline. An incident in 1885 suggests this: During the 1880s, many students protested against the restrictive regulations and strict discipline inflicted on them by the Polytechnic’s management (see appendix B). As Guggenbühl reports in [25, p. 105-106]:

[…] in 1885, when the young Polytechnicians thought that Director Geiser continuously treated them unkindly, and eventually felt provoked to lodge open protest, a student demonstration [took place], which members of the University joined, too, and subsequently [there was] once again an academic revolt. The direct cause for this was an

arguably untenable rumour. They said that Geiser refused to suspend teaching on the occasion of the funeral of two young Polytechnicians […]. As a result, [students] performed rough music in the evening hours of 09 February in front of his house in nearby Küsnacht, using a variety of cacophonous instruments, including a bass drum.

Frei and Stammbach, who describe the incident in [14, p. 44], note that ‘it was probably only because of Kappeler’s skilful comportment that the situation calmed down again’. According to the School Board meeting at which the incident was discussed, a tactful approach was indeed advisable, as some students got into trouble with the police during the demonstration [5e]. The Board also stresses that the allegations against Geiser were ‘altogether untrue and fictitious’ [5e, p. 22].

As Director, Geiser represented the Polytechnic at various events in Switzerland and abroad. For example, he told his friend Gysel in 1882 that he was invited to attend the opening ceremony of the Gotthard [1a] (see also section 5.2.2). In 1895 he represented the Polytechnic at the centenary celebrations of the Ecole Normale in Paris [5i]. It seems that he retained some of these representative duties after his retirement as Director. As an example, he attended anniversary celebrations of various secondary schools in Switzerland, such as the Kantonsschule in Grisons [5m]. In a similar vein, he substituted for the ETH Director at a meeting in Bern in 1912, where the contributions of higher education institutions at the Swiss National Exhibition in 1914 were discussed [5u].

As Geiser writes, ‘in addition to the usual duties’ as Director he faced ‘extensive negotiations with the authorities of those schools which asked that their graduates be admitted without any entrance examinations’ [3b] after taking up his post. In particular, Geiser became “Consultant to the School Board on Matura Affairs” (“Referent des Schulrates für Maturitätsangelegenheiten”). There is no record in the Board minutes as to when exactly he was appointed, but in minutes from 1921 concerning a

pensions increase it is noted that Geiser took up that post at the beginning of the 1880s [5c]. When he stepped down from his post of Director in 1895, the Board asked him to continue working as Consultant, which he did until his retirement, despite doubts [3b]:

Due to this extensive adm[inistrative] function I got thoroughly acquainted with the organisation and administration of the Polyt[echnic], gained a comprehensive overview of Swiss secondary schools, & had the opportunity to meet many teachers, headmasters, and education ministers, which proved to be very stimulating. But despite the interest with which I addressed myself to these matters and despite the ample recognition for my efforts from superior authorities, I am increasingly plagued by the question whether I am not far too distracted from my actual job as academic teacher which is based on research.

In this role Geiser conducted negotiations on the subject of entrance examinations with various schools in Switzerland. Due to a change in legislation in 1881 (see appendix B) the Polytechnic discontinued its Preparatory Course and existing treaties with secondary schools [45]. Thus, new treaties had to be negotiated, a project that Geiser became heavily involved in. To this end he visited schools across the entire country, either by himself or with a School Board representative. For example, he told Gysel in 1883 that he would travel to Frauenfeld with Kappeler to conduct treaty negotiations [1b] (see also section 5.2.2); in 1891 he visited the secondary school in St. Gallen [5h]. He continued these school visits during the 20th

century, as is attested in the minutes of several Board meetings [e.g. 5r, p. 83- 85; 5k; 5l]. As Consultant Geiser gave evaluations of schools in question at Board meetings, and indicated whether or not a treaty would be worthwhile [e.g. 5s]. Furthermore, he corresponded with schools and educational ministers on behalf of the School Board [e.g. 5r, p. 85; 5t], and sat on the Polytechnic’s Entrance Examinations Committee.

In essence, pupils who obtained their Matura from a “treaty school” were exempt from the Polytechnic’s entrance examinations. Before signing any treaties the School Board and its delegates, Geiser for example, inspected the quality of the curriculum and the teaching staff in order to ensure that certain standards were met. If applicable, the Board set out certain conditions that the schools had to meet before entering into an agreement. For example, based on Geiser’s observations, the Board decided that the secondary school in canton Schwyz had to reduce teaching hours for sciences in favour of languages [5s, p. 124] – which is quite interesting as the Polytechnic was generally more concerned with raising the standards of science teaching. Furthermore, Polytechnic lecturers acted as examiners at the Matura examinations at the “treaty schools”. From about 1900 onwards, the School Board regularly appointed representatives to attend examinations50

, among them Geiser and many of his colleagues.

Geiser soon became an expert on secondary school education in Switzerland. It is likely that this reputation prompted the Swiss government to appoint him President of the first Federal Matura Committee in 1891. Geiser remained in this post until 1909. As Geiser reports in [3b], he first chaired a small committee tasked with reviewing the existing Matura procedures. The full Matura Committee then conducted negotiations with secondary schools regarding the contents of their Matura programmes. Moreover, he writes, due to the specific regulations for medical students he had to familiarise himself with the requirements for medical exams in other countries. He also comments that changes to the Polytechnic’s admissions policy in the 1880s, such as raising the entrance age and level of academic prerequisites, led to disputes between the Polytechnic and individual schools. In particular, these changes touched upon the debate of federal vs. cantonal sovereignty (see also appendix B).

                                                                                                                50

Possibly this happened already during the 19th _{century, but there are no references}

By all accounts Geiser was very skilled in administrative matters; his extensive network of contacts (see section 2.1) also helped him in his task. His biographers also attribute his influence to his close friendships with the Polytechnic’s Presidents and Directors. As Meissner puts it [32, p. 372]:

He was the paladin51 _{and confidant of […] Kappeler, who generously}

delegated many tasks to him, occasionally even representation in Bern52_.

Furthermore, Plancherel notes that Geiser ‘played a discreet but important role in appointments of mathematics professors’ [39, p. 213]; Meissner echoes this observation [32, p. 372-373]. Unfortunately, there is no proof of this in the School Board minutes, but we find Geiser in a few appointment committees, e.g. for Edouard Meissner and for Ernst Fiedler (see section 4.2.7). Note, however, that this was after Geiser’s time as Director. During the 19th _century

in particular, the School Board Presidents were in charge of staffing. Whilst both Kappeler and Bleuler were known to trust only their judgement, it is conceivable that they asked selected professors for their opinion. In the case of mathematics, the Polytechnic recruited a large number of first-rate mathematicians, indicating that someone was very good at recognising talent. However, unfortunately I am not able to give more details on Geiser’s involvement.

In addition to the roles discussed above, Geiser was a member of the first Swiss Delegation of the International Commission on Mathematical Instruction (ICMI), which was established at the 1908 ICM in Rome at the initiative of David Eugene Smith. Geiser’s Swiss colleagues were the ICMI’s first Secretary General, Henri Fehr from the University of Geneva, and the Bernese professor Johann Heinrich Graf. The delegates were appointed at a meeting in Karlsruhe, Germany, in 1909. Supported by a sub-committee the                                                                                                                

51

Meissner does not refer to the Knights of Charlemagne here, but rather uses ‘paladin’ in its figurative sense to describe a loyal friend or follower. This reflects its original meaning: in Antiquity ‘palatinus’ described a high-ranking official in the court of the Roman Emperor. In German ‘paladin’ can be used derisively, but I do not think that this is the case here.

52

delegates ‘would address themselves to a meticulous investigation on mathematical instruction in Switzerland at all levels’ [34; see also 47]. Due to his experience Geiser was in an excellent position to conduct such a study. His interest in education is also reflected by some of the conferences that he attended during his career: In 1889 for example, he attended the Congrès international pour l’enseignement supérieur et l’enseignement secondaire, which was part of the World Exhibition in Paris [5f].

An example of his administrative achievements at the Polytechnic is the establishment of a Civil Fund for Widows and Orphans. Kollros notes that Franel, Geiser, Gnehm, and Albin Herzog were involved in creating the fund [28, p. 169], but it is possible that other professors were involved in this project as well. At their meeting on 04 July 1899 the School Board enacted a petition to the Swiss Federal Council on the subject of such a fund [5q]. At this time Geiser had just stepped down from his post as Deputy Director; his successor was Herzog, who had been Director, and whose successor in turn was Gnehm.

Moreover, Geiser was one of the School Board delegates on the committee that organised the 50th

anniversary celebrations of the Polytechnic, together with the Deputy President Gustave Naville, Director Gnehm and soon-to-be Director Franel [cf. 5n].

References:

Archival Material:

[1] D I.02.521*.04/0155: GEISER Carl Friedrich, Stadtarchiv Schaffhausen [1a] Letter from C F Geiser to J Gysel, 21/05/1882

[1b] Letter from C F Geiser to J Gysel, 20/03/1883

[2] D I.02.521*.04/0153: SCHLAEFLI Ludwig: letter from L Schläfli to J Gysel, 1884, date not specified, Stadtarchiv Schaffhausen

[3] Hs 92: 270-281, ETH Library Archive

[3a] Hs 92: 274: C F Geiser, notes on Steiner’s estate, undated

[3b] Hs 92: 276: C F Geiser, manuscript, undated (probably written after 1927)

[4] Hs 194, ETH Library Archive

[4a] Hs 194: 157: Geiser family tree compiled by F Bützberger [4b] Hs 194: 167, letter from J H Graf to F Bützberger, 02/09/1917 [4c] Hs 194: 261: letter from G Sidler to F Bützberger, 06/12/1906

[4d] Hs 194: 262: letter from F Bützberger to G Sidler (draft), 08/12/1906

[5] Minutes of the School Board meetings (including Presidential Decrees and Appendices): http://www.sr.ethbib.ethz.ch/digbib/view?did=c1:21043&p=11

[5a] Anhang 1866: Programm der eidgen. polytechnischen Schule für das Sommersemester 1866

[5b] Anhang 1914: Programm der Eidg. Technischen Hochschule für das Wintersemester 1914/15, p. 54

[5c] Anhang 1921: Professoren im Ruhestand, p. 88 [5d] Präsidialverfügung §289, 19/10/1863, p. 160 [5e] Präsidialverfügung §46, 12/02/1885, p. 22-24 [5f] Präsidialverfügung §228, 16/07/1889, p. 120 [5g] Präsidialverfügung §328, 17/10/1889, p. 172-173 [5h] Präsidialverfügung §428, 26/12/1891, p. 244 [5i] Präsidialverfügung §148, 01/04/1895, p. 75 [5j] Präsidialverfügung §360, 29/08/1895, p. 166 [5k] Präsidialverfügung §192, 22/04/1902, p. 95 [5l] Präsidialverfügung §453, 07/10/1902, p. 224 [5m] Präsidialverfügung §200, 26/05/1904, p. 101 [5n] Präsidialverfügung §486, 02/12/1904, p. 248-251 [5o] Präsidialverfügung §193, 14/05/1913, p. 84-85 [5p] Präsidialverfügung §216, 23/03/1934, p. 216 [5q] Schulratsprotokoll Nr. 8 (1899), 04/07/1899, §95, p. 140 [5r] Schulratsprotokoll Nr. 5 (1901), 04/05/1901, §62-68, p. 82-86 [5s] Schulratsprotokoll Nr. 9 (1901), 07/09/1901, §121-123, p. 123-125 [5t] Schulratsprotokoll Nr. 5 (1902), 09/08/1902, §99, p. 97 [5u] Schulratsprotokoll Nr. 4 (1912), 20/05/1912, §56, p. 22 [5v] Schulratsprotokoll Nr. 2 (1923), 20/01/1923, §30, p. 25-26 [6] ZEI 3.34, ZB Graphische Sammlung:

http://opac.nebis.ch/F/?local_base=NEBIS&CON_LNG=GER&func=find- b&find_code=SYS&request=005799132, accessed 01/04/2014

Information by Email:

Books & Papers:

[8] E M Brunner, editorial, Connect – ETH Alumni: Das Magazin18, 2009, 3 [9] B Colbois, C Riedtmann and V Schroeder, Math.ch/100. 100 Jahre Schweizerische Mathematische Gesellschaft, European Mathematical Society, Zürich, 2010

[10] A Emch, Carl Friedrich Geiser, National Mathematics Magazine 12 (6), 286- 289

[11] E Ermatinger, Gottfried Kellers Leben, mit Benutzung von Jakob Baechtolds Biographie, 6th _{and 7}th _{edition, J. G. Cotta’sche Buchhandlung Nachfolger,}

Stuttgart, 1924

[12] G Frei (ed.), Der Briefwechsel David Hilbert – Felix Klein (1886-1918), Vol. 19

of Arbeiten aus der Niedersächsischen Staats- und Universitätsbibliothek Göttingen, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen, 1985

[13] G Frei and U Stammbach, Hermann Weyl und die Mathematik an der ETH Zürich 1913-1930, Birkhäuser, Basel, 1992

[14] G Frei and U Stammbach, Die Mathematiker an den Zürcher Hochschulen, Birkhäuser, Basel, 1994

[15] L Friedrich and S Springer, Pestalozzi, Johann H.: Sämtliche Werke und Briefe – Kritische Ausgabe. Registerband I, Verlag Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Zürich, 1994 [16] C F Geiser (ed.), Adresse an Professor Dr. Ludwig Schläfli in Bern, Schweizerische Bauzeitung 3 (4), 1884, 24

[17] C F Geiser, Einige geometrische Betrachtungen, Verhandlungen der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft in Zürich 10, 186, 219-229

[18] C F Geiser (ed.), Jacob Steiner’s Vorlesungen über synthetische Geometrie, Vol. I: Die Theorie der Kegelschnitte in elementarer Darstellung, Teubner, Leipzig, 1867 [19] C F Geiser, Opere matematiche di Luigi Cremona, Vierteljahrsschrift der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft in Zürich 62, 1918, 452-459

[20] C F Geiser, Über die Normalen der Kegelschnitte, Crelle’s Journal 65, 1866, 381-383

[21] C F Geiser, Über zwei geometrische Probleme, Crelle’s Journal 67, 1867, 78- 89

[22] C F Geiser, Zur Erinnerung an Jakob Steiner, Verhandlungen der Schweizerischen Naturforschenden Gesellschaft 56, 1873, 215-251

[23] C F Geiser, Zur Erinnerung an Theodor Reye, Vierteljahrsschrift der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft Zürich66, 1921, 158-180

[24] J H Graf, Der Mathematiker Jakob Steiner von Utzenstorf. Ein Lebensbild und zugleich eine Würdigung seiner Leistungen, K. J. Wyss, Bern, 1897

[25] G Guggenbühl, Geschichte der Eidgenössischen Technischen Hochschule in Zürich, in: Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule 1855-1955. École Polytechnique Fédérale, Buchverlag der Neuen Zürcher Zeitung, Zürich, 1955, 1-257

[26] V A Iskovskikh, Generators in the Two-Dimensional Cremona Group Over a Nonclosed Field, in: E F Mishchenko and E A Volkov (eds.), Number Theory, Algebra, Mathematical Analysis, and Their Applications, Vol. 200 (2) of Proceedings of the Steklov Institute of Mathematics, translation edited by B Silver and R W Sizer, American Mathematical Society, Providence, 1993, 173- 188

[27] C H Knoblauch et al (ed.), Leopoldina. Amtliches Organ der Kaiserlichen Leopoldino-Carolinischen deutschen Akademie der Naturforscher 24, 1888

[28] L Kollros, Erinnerungen, in: Schweizerische Hochschulzeitung. 100 Jahre Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule 1855-1955 28, special edition, 1955, 169-173

[29] L Kollros, Prof. Dr. Carl Friedrich Geiser, Schweizerische Bauzeitung 103

(13), 1934, 157-158

[30] L Kollros, Prof. Dr. Carl Friedrich Geiser, Verhandlungen der Schweizerischen Naturforschenden Gesellschaft 115, 1934, 521-528

[31] J Lindecker and F Würsten, Seit 140 Jahren der ETH verpflichtet, Connect – ETH Alumni: Das Magazin 18, 2009, 8-15

[32] E Meissner, Carl Friedrich Geiser (1843-1934; Mitglied der Gesellschaft seit 1883), Verhandlungen der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft in Zürich 79, 1934, 371-376

[33] Netzwerk. Aufgabe. Mission., alumni brochure of the ETH:

http://www.alumni.ethz.ch/publication/D_AlumniBroschure.pdf, accessed 16/04/2014

[34] Note regarding C F Geiser in: Bulletin Technique de la Suisse Romande 36

(10), 1910, 120

[35] Note regarding C F Geiser in: Die Eisenbahn 3 (10), 1875, 90

[36] Note regarding C F Geiser in: Schweizerische Bauzeitung 72 (6), 1918, 55 [37] Note regarding C F Geiser in: Schweizerische Bauzeitung 81 (8), 1923, 99 [38] Note regarding C F Geiser in: Verhandlungen der Schweizerischen Naturforschenden Gesellschaft 99, 1917, 44

[39] M Plancherel, Mathématiques et mathématiciens en Suisse (1850-1950), L’Enseignement Mathématique 6, 1960, 194-218

[40] G Pólya, The Pólya Picture Album: Encounters of a Mathematician, edited by G L Alexanderson, Birkhäuser, Boston, 1987

[41] K Reich, Die Entwicklung des Tensorkalküls. Vom absoluten Differentialkalkül zur Relativitätstheorie, Birkhäuser, Basel, 1994

[42] A Reiser, Albert Einstein. A Biographical Portrait, Albert and Charles Boni, New York, 1930

[43] J Stachel, The First Two Acts, in: J Renn (ed.), The Genesis of General Relativity, Vol. I: Einstein’s Zurich Notebook, Springer, Dordrecht, 2007, 81-111 [44] K Weierstrass (ed.), Jacob Steiner’s Gesammelte Werke, Vol. II, Verlag G. Reimer, Berlin, 1882

[45] A Westermann, Die Einbettung des Polytechnikums in die schweizerische Schullandschaft: http://www.ethistory.ethz.ch/besichtigungen/touren/vitrinen/dienstwege/vitrine 41/, accessed 02/11/2010 Websites: [46]http://www.ellisisland.org/search/matchMore.asp?LNM=Iltis&PLNM=Iltis&ki nd=exact&offset=0&dwpdone=1, accessed 01/04/2014 [47] http://www.icmihistory.unito.it.19221936.php, accessed 15/04/2014 [48] www.matrikel.uzh.ch/active/6933.htm, accessed 17/04/2014