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The current knowledge of teachers is derived primarily from research conducted within the context of two different traditions:

 Psychological: Researchers operating within this framework study teachers’ knowledge, beliefs, expectations, responsibilities, development, expertise, stress and burnout.

 Sociological: Researchers in this framework examine teachers’ social status and political work. Also, the roles assigned to, or assumed by teachers, teacher supply and demand, the impact of the number of women in the profession, the professionalism of teachers and the realities of teaching (Anderson, 1995: 3).

The persona of a music teacher is different from that of other teachers. Harrison (2010: 17) questioned whether music teachers perceived themselves to be primarily musicians or teachers, or whether they have created another conjoined identity between these two personas. Pre-service music teachers should be guided through a process of self-exploration during the early stages of teacher education to ensure that they do not eventually enter the career with a wrong understanding of who they are and what they can offer to education. Harrison presented a model for the development of teacher identity. This model included elements of biography, pre-service programs and school culture and recommends that pre-service programs could be strengthened by the provision of events to experience and reflect on personal biography and school context (2010: 18). Becoming a teacher involves a variety of personally and professionally challenging roles and the emotionally demanding nature of the job requires more than merely technical skills.

Tasks that include performing, co-curricular activities and teaching responsibilities all contribute to the creation of a professional identity in music teachers (Harrison, 2010: 18). The timeframe in which the pre-service teacher can develop his/her professional identity, is crucial and raises the question as to where, when and how

50 these attributes and skills should be taught. Unfortunately, professional identities of music teachers are established within pre-service training courses and very little changes once they reach their first teaching post (Harrison, 2010: 18). Verrastro disagreed and felt that pre-service teachers are still in a flexible stage with regard to the creation of their teaching attitudes, strategies and behaviours during their pre- service training phase (1975: 171). That is one of the reasons it is important for music teacher educators to guide prospective music teachers towards the creation of a professional identity during this time period.

According to McCarthy, the primary focus of teacher training should be to nurture self-confidence within the pre-service music teachers, whilst helping to develop their own identities as musicians. Another important focal point, is the development of a personal conviction of the value of music in their own lives and those of their pupils in schools (1999: 47).

The cultural, racial and class backgrounds and personal histories of teachers influence their professional development. Three ways were mentioned by Achinstein, Ogawa and Speiglman (2004):

 Teachers’ worldviews, or intellectual frameworks, are shaped by their personal backgrounds. This, in turn, influences their socialisation experiences in schools.

 The selection of schools in which they work and their connections with students are influenced by their personal backgrounds.

 Teachers learn to teach by observing their own teachers - “apprenticeship of observation”.

When creating a professional identity as a music teacher, one needs to know what society views as a good teacher. Bray (2002: 68-69) (supported in some respects by Campbell (1999: 15) felt that good teachers should display the following characteristics:

3.3.4.1 Professional knowledge and understanding

 Be equipped with updated knowledge of good teaching practice and techniques;

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 they must know their subjects;

 stay abreast with curriculum changes and developments outside their immediate sphere of involvement;

 Pedagogical content knowledge.

3.3.4.2 Teaching and assessment

 Be able to plan a program of work and lessons to meet the needs of pupils;

 involve a range of different strategies for teaching and classroom management;

 set clearly defined goals for students, continually assess their progress and give appropriate feedback.

3.3.4.3 Student Progress

 Ensure that the progress made by pupils, is in line with similar students nationally, in other words, benchmarking ones’ own pupils’ success against what is nationally acceptable;

 Knowledge of the pupils and their characteristics.

3.3.4.4 Wider professional effectiveness

 Ensure that their professional development does not stay behind;

 Make an effort to contribute to the policies and aspirations of the school;

 Knowledge of educational processes, values, philosophical and historical backgrounds;

 Knowledge of educational context.

3.3.4.5 Professional characteristics

 Challenge and support pupils to do their best.

Pre-service teachers should be aware of the attitudes and values that are common amongst university music students and that these attitudes and values need to mature before effective music teaching will take effect. This desired maturity in attitude must be initiated during teacher training. According to the MENC

52 Commission, student teachers gain ego-satisfaction through personal performance, whereas a mature music teacher gains satisfaction though creating opportunities for their students’ musical expression (MENC, 1970:39). Therefore, it becomes crucial for student teachers to be involved in a carefully designed mentorship program in schools, with ample opportunities to learn how to teach in various situations under the guidance of school teachers in collaboration with university lecturers.

An important goal in early teacher preparation programs is to have students identify characteristics of effective teachers. Textbook definitions that include words such as “knowledgeable”, “self-confident”, “with strong communication and management skills”, “clear instructional focus” and “high expectations of self and students” are often sprouted. Understanding the perceptions that pre-service teachers have of effective teachers and teaching, is an important prerequisite for identifying experiences and views that may require pre-service teachers to challenge their beliefs and to consider the aptness of those beliefs (Minor et al., 2002).