MEDIDAS PARA LA PRESERVACIÓN DEL MEDIO AMBIENTE

A key assumption of this thesis is the notion that power imbalances exist. The nature of power is of prime importance to feminist, participatory and indigenous people’s worldviews. Each of these worldviews offers alternative ways of re- thinking existing power relations by emphasising the need for voices to be heard which have largely been ignored, marginalised or trivialised in previous research (e.g., Belenky et al., 1986; Butler, 1999; Gaventa & Cornwall, 2008; Goldberger et al., 1996; Harding, 1996; Hesse-Biber, 2007; Park, 2001/2006; Smith, 1999; Yates-Smith, 1998). In each of the worldviews, particular expressions of power are focused on and addressed; yet the three worldviews have much in common. In this section, I draw from all of the above discussions and briefly outline the key areas of power addressed within each worldview, noting similarities and links between the three worldviews. A summary of the areas of power addressed is presented in Appendix 2, Table 1.

As mentioned in the above sections, feminists emphasise the centrality of gender. The key area of power addressed by feminists is the dominance of western, wealthy, white heterosexual males in political, legal, social, economic and academic fields. This dominance has resulted in marginalisation of white women, non-white women and men, women and men of non-dominant cultures,

lower socio-economic groups, non-western nationalities and varying sexualities (Barbour, 2002, 2004, 2006a; Belenky et al., 1986; Butler, 1990; Cannella & Manuelito, 2008; Dillard, 2008; Fine, Tuck & Zeller-Berkman, 2008; Fischer, 1988; Goldberger et al., 1996; Hesse-Biber, 2007; hooks, 1989, 2004; Kyung, 1990; Moltman-Wendel, 1994; Reinharz, 1992; Smith, 1999; Te Awekotuku, 1991; Yates-Smith, 1998). Commenting on the diversity of challenges addressed by feminism, feminist philosopher Sandra Harding (1996) identifies three key themes as emerging during the final two decades of the twentieth century relevant to issues of power: 1) it is vital to recognise differences as well as commonalities among women; 2) cultural differences create both resources and limitations; 3) power/knowledge analyses need to be centred in “distinctive feminist standpoint epistemologies” which provide answers to questions such as who creates

knowledge, where is that knowledge lodged and what is it used for (Harding, 1996, p. 434). Thus, feminists critically research any matter concerning people who are marginalised, seeking political and social change on individual and collective bases, and, in the process, seek to overturn historical western ways of undertaking and applying research.

Adherents to a participatory worldview understand reality as co- created and situated through participatory means and situated in the cosmos, as discussed above. Participatory researchers are committed to what is intrinsically valuable in human life, determined collaboratively in relationship with their participants. Therefore, the areas of power addressed are the traditional western dominant/non-dominant dualisms of researcher/participant, mind/body,

physical/spiritual, acting/being and economic/ecological. Although propositional knowing is acknowledged as a valid way of knowing, participatory researchers are adamant that propositional knowing needs to include “a strong awareness of the links between propositional knowledge and social power” (Heron & Reason, 2008, p. 378). This is because abuses can and do occur, depending on how propositional knowledge is communicated, who has access to it and how it is used. Such abuses can occur when the knowledge is gained and maintained through research in academic, small community-based groups, corporate, government or global contexts (Gaventa & Cornwall, 2001/2006). In such instances, knowledge can be used to maintain the power of the powerful and reinforce their ability to include or exclude less powerful people and their knowledge (Gaventa & Cornwall, 2001/2006). Therefore, access to knowledge

and participation in knowledge production, use and dissemination need to be addressed as part of the research process (Gaventa & Cornwall, 2001/2006); one response to this issue promoted by participatory researchers is the concept of researching ‘with’ rather than researching ‘on’ people (Heron & Reason, 2001/2006). Thus, participatory research can link knowledge, awareness and action to bring about change for marginalised peoples (Gaventa & Cornwall, 2001/2006). Hence, like feminists, participatory researchers are committed to challenging any sphere of dominance leading to marginalisation and injustice, in any social context (Heron & Reason, 1997, 2001/2006, 2008a, 2008b; Reason & Bradbury, 2001b, 2008). Since indigenous peoples value a collective rather than individual approach to knowledge and because they also seek to redress injustices and marginalisation, indigenous peoples generally espouse a participatory

approach to research (Denzin et al., 2008; Pyrch & Castillo, 2001). As indicated above, indigenous peoples are concerned about redressing the imbalances of dominant, powerful, wealthy, colonising cultures. Examples of power exerted by a colonising culture include the dispensing of available resources and particular foci in education which reinforce dominant ideologies and often enforce the loss of indigenous languages and cultures. Such expressions of power inevitably privilege those people who conform to the

dominant culture in terms of appearance and behaviour and marginalise those who do not or are unable to conform (Bishop, 2008; Kincheloe & Steinberg, 2008; Pyrch & Castillo, 2001; Smith, 1999). Thus, through the power of colonisation politically, legally, socially, economically and in land occupation, indigenous peoples have been marginalised. Indigenous peoples struggle for self-

determination as they seek to address issues of colonisation and decolonisation and redress of injustices. These injustices include administration, interpretation and application of research (Denzin et al., 2008; Kincheloe & Steinberg, 2008; Pyrch & Castillo, 2001; Smith, 1999). However, in recent years, indigenous scholars have become more overt in their assertion that power lies with indigenous peoples because of their ability to challenge the discourses of

dominant colonising cultures (Denzin et al., 2008; Pyrch & Castillo, 2001; Smith, 1999). As Kincheloe and Steinberg (2008) state: “Indigenous knowledge provides a provocative vantage point from which to view Eurocentric discourses, a starting place for a new conversation about the world and human beings’ role in it” (p. 152). Such conversations involve recognition by non-indigenous researchers of

the damage caused to indigenous peoples by the imposition of non-indigenous cultural orientations and values as perpetuated through fundamental beliefs (ontologies), ways of knowing (epistemologies), and research methods (Kincheloe & Steinberg, 2008; Smith, 1999). However, in the process of challenging

dominant discourses, indigenous peoples may also invoke aid in their “struggle for justice and self-determination” (Kincheloe & Steinberg, 2008, p. 152).

Conclusions

In this chapter, I have presented a case for a feminist participatory worldview which weaves together feminist and participatory and is informed by indigenous peoples’ worldviews. Such an interweaving of worldviews is vital to a study on reflective practice in art-making among ten female art-makers in Aotearoa New Zealand. This breadth of worldviews is necessary because the female art-makers in the study identify themselves as belonging to indigenous, dominant, non- dominant and immigrant people groups within Aotearoa New Zealand. The breadth and variety in fundamental beliefs, ways of knowing, values and issues of power represented in a feminist participatory worldview such as this are more likely to highlight the multiplicity of elements in the lived experiences of reflective practice in art-making of such a diverse group of women and to adequately represent those lived experiences.

In Chapter 3, I present a literature review which includes key concepts of reflective practice, adult education, creativity, spirituality, embodied knowing, art-making as a general field and as it relates to creativity, spirituality and embodied knowing, and the area of reflective practice in art-making. Reflective practice in art-making, as applied in this thesis, includes development of an approach to reflective practice in art-making which is used as a guiding structure in the methodology of the study.

Chapter 3

Literature review

In Chapter 2, I presented a feminist participatory worldview as the framework for this thesis. In doing so, I discussed the interweaving of feminist,

participatory and indigenous worldviews with consideration of fundamental beliefs, ways of knowing, values and issues of power associated with each of these worldviews. Together, these worldviews emphasise the importance of gender and diversity in terms of culture and ways of knowing. I concluded that this particular interweaving of worldviews potentially encompasses the richness and breadth of the lived experience of reflective practice in art-making for ten adult female solo art-makers from a range of ethnicities and areas of art-making, situated in Aotearoa New Zealand. In doing so, I implied that certain

assumptions underpin this thesis. The first assumption is that individuals’ views and experiences are influenced by their social, cultural and historical positioning and, particularly, by their gender. The second assumption is that it is important to respect individual views and experiences in a research context. These assumptions are highlighted in this thesis because women’s voices and

experiences have traditionally been neglected, particularly those of women from non-dominant cultures. In addition, adult female art-makers’ experiences of learning have also been neglected.

The key question of this thesis is ‘how is reflective practice useful in art-making among art-makers of various ethnicities and art-making areas?’ Therefore, in this chapter, I discuss available literature from which a study of reflective practice in adult women’s art-making can proceed. First, I discuss reflective practice for adult learners by focusing on the literature of reflective practice, adult learning and adults as reflective practitioners. I then discuss creativity as an area of particular interest in art-making, and spirituality and embodied knowing which are important to a feminist participatory worldview. Next, I present an overview of art-making focusing particularly on the areas of art-making included in this thesis and on creativity, spirituality, embodied knowing in relation to art-making. Finally, I discuss reflective practice in art- making by bringing together the elements of reflective practice, adult learning, adults as reflective practitioners, creativity, spirituality, embodied knowing and art-making. In this final discussion I also review an approach to reflective

practice in dance-making that provides the framework for a study of reflective practice in art-making.